Editing Geʽez (section)

== History and literature ==
{{See also|Bible translations into Geʽez}}[[File:Sample of Ge'ez writing.jpg|thumb|Example of Geʽez taken from a 15th-century Ethiopian Coptic prayer book]]

In addition to the [[Bible]] including the [[Deuterocanonical books]] there are many medieval and early modern original texts. Most important works are also the literature of the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which include Christian liturgy (service books, prayers, hymns), [[hagiography|hagiographies]], and [[Patristics|Patristic literature]]. For example, around 200 texts were written about indigenous Ethiopian saints from the fourteenth through the nineteenth century. Traditional education was the responsibility of priests and monks. "The Church thus constituted the custodian of the nation's culture", says [[Richard Pankhurst (academic)|Richard Pankhurst]], who describes the traditional education as follows:

{{blockquote|Traditional education was largely biblical. It began with the learning of the alphabet, or more properly, syllabary... The student's second grade comprised the memorization of the first chapter of the [[First Epistle of John|first Epistle General of St. John]] in Geez. The study of writing would probably also begin at this time, and particularly in more modern times some arithmetic might be added. In the third stage the [[Acts of the Apostles]] were studied, while certain prayers were also learnt, and writing and arithmetic continued. ... The fourth stage began with the study of the [[Psalms]] of David and was considered an important landmark in a child's education, being celebrated by the parents with a feast to which the teacher, father confessor, relatives and neighbours were invited. A boy who had reached this stage would moreover usually be able to write, and might act as a letter writer.<ref>{{harvnb|Pankhurst|1968|pp=666f}}; cf. the EOTC's own account at [https://web.archive.org/web/20071102185031/http://www.eotc-patriarch.org/teachings.htm its official website.] "Church Teachings". Retrieved from the Internet Archive on March 12, 2014.</ref>}}

However, works of history and chronography, ecclesiastical and civil law, philology, medicine, and letters were also written in Geʽez.<ref name="internationalstandardbible.com">{{Cite web |title=Ethiopic Language in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html |website=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |language=en}}</ref>

Significant [[Ethiopian manuscript collections|collections of Ethiopian manuscripts]] are found outside of Ethiopia in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The collection in the [[British Library]] comprises some 800 manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 20th centuries, notably including magical and divinatory scrolls, and illuminated manuscripts of the 16th to 17th centuries. It was initiated by a donation of 74 codices by the [[Church of England Missionary Society]] in the 1830s and 1840s, and substantially expanded by 349 codices, looted by the British from the Emperor [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]]'s capital at [[Amba Mariam|Magdala]] in the [[1868 Expedition to Abyssinia]]. The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City has at least two [http://www.metmuseum.org/search-results?ft=Geez illuminated manuscripts in Geʽez].

=== Origins ===
[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|The [[Ezana Stone]], engraved from AD 330 to 356, is written in ancient Geʽez, [[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]

The Geʽez language is classified as a [[South Semitic language]], though an alternative hypothesis posits that the Semitic languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia may best be considered an independent branch of Semitic,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=M. |first=E. |date=1935 |title=Note on the Languages of Abyssinia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482 |journal=Bulletin of International News |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=3–5 |jstor=25639482 |issn=2044-3986}}</ref> with Geʽez and the closely related [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]] languages forming a northern branch while [[Amharic language|Amharic]], Argobba, Harari and the Gurage languages form the southern branch.{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=428}}

Inscriptions dating to the mid-1st millennium BCE, written in the [[Sabaean language]] in the [[South Arabian alphabet|epigraphic South Arabian script]], have been found in the kingdom of [[Dʿmt]], serving at least as a witness to a presence of speakers of Semitic languages in the region. There is some evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in [[Eritrea]] since approximately 2000 BC.{{sfn|Stuart|1991|p=57}} Unlike previously assumed, the Geʽez language is now not regarded as an offshoot of [[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] or any other forms of [[Old South Arabian]].<ref>Weninger, Stefan, "Geʽez" in ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'', p.732.</ref>{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=428}}

Early inscriptions in Geʽez from the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (appearing varyingly in the epigraphic South Arabian script, and unvocalized or vocalized Ethiopic/Geʽez script{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}}) have been dated to as early as the 4th century CE. The surviving Geʽez literature properly begins in the same century with the Christianization of the Aksum, during the reign of [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana of Aksum]].<ref name="internationalstandardbible.com"/>{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}} The oldest known example of the Geʽez script, unvocalized and containing religiously [[Paganism|pagan]] references, is found on the [[Hawulti (monument)|Hawulti]] obelisk in [[Matara, Eritrea]].<ref>Edward Ullendorff, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222457 "The Obelisk of Matara", ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland''], No. 1/2 (April, 1951), pp. 26–32</ref> There exist about a dozen long inscriptions dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, and over 200 short ones.{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}}

=== 5th to 7th centuries ===

The oldest surviving Geʽez manuscript is thought to be the second of the [[Garima Gospels]], dating to the 5th or 6th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=A conservator at work on the Garima Gospels |date=2010-07-14 |title="Discovery of earliest illustrated manuscript," Martin Bailey, June 2010 |url=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2010/07/discovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html |access-date=2012-07-11 |publisher=Theartnewspaper.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Arts Newspaper June 2010 – Abuna Garima Gospels |url=http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501030359/http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html |archive-date=2012-05-01 |access-date=2012-07-11 |publisher=Ethiopianheritagefund.org}}</ref> Almost all transmitted texts from this early "[[Aksumite]]" period are religious ([[Christianity|Christian]]) in nature, and translated from Greek. Indeed, the range and scope of the translation enterprise undertaken in the first century of the new Axumite church has few parallels in the early centuries of Christian history. The outcome was an Ethiopic Bible containing 81 Books: 46 of the Old Testament and 35 of the New. A number of these Books are called "deuterocanonical" (or "apocryphal" according to certain Western theologians), such as the [[Ascension of Isaiah]], [[Jubilees]], [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]], the [[Paralipomena of Baruch]], [[Book of Noah|Noah]], [[Ezra]], [[Nehemiah]], [[Maccabees]], and [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]. The Book of Enoch in particular is notable since its complete text has survived in no other language; and, for the other works listed, the Ethiopic version is highly regarded as a witness to the original text.

Also to this early period dates [[Qerlos]], a collection of Christological writings beginning with the treatise of [[Cyril of Alexandria|Saint Cyril]] (known as ''Hamanot Reteʼet'' or ''De Recta Fide''). These works are the theological foundation of the Ethiopic Church. In the later 5th century, the [[Aksumite Collection]]—an extensive selection of liturgical, theological, synodical and historical materials—was translated into Geʽez from Greek, providing a fundamental set of instructions and laws for the developing Axumite Church. Included in this collection is a translation of the [[Apostolic Tradition]] (attributed to [[Hippolytus of Rome]], and lost in the original Greek) for which the Ethiopic version provides much the best surviving witness. Another important religious document is ''Serʼata Paknemis'', a translation of the monastic Rules of [[Pachomius]]. Non-religious works translated in this period include ''[[Physiologus]]'', a work of natural history also very popular in Europe.{{sfn|Budge|1928|pp=566f.}}

The use of Geʽez is also known from many excavated inscriptions. Six Geʽez inscriptions are known from 6th-century South Arabia, from during the reign of [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb of Aksum]], the Aksumite king who [[Aksumite invasion of Himyar|conquered the Himyarite kingdom]]. They record his military conquests and contain many religious references, including to biblical figures (such as Jesus, Mary, and David) and scriptural quotations ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 22:22–23, [[Psalms]] 65:16 and 68:2, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 6:33, and with less certainty, [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 15:7).<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Hatke |first=Georg |date=2022 |title=Religious Ideology in the Gəʿəz Epigraphic Corpus from Yemen |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523 |journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny |language=English |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=76–78 |issn=0080-3545}}</ref>

=== 13th to 14th centuries ===

After the decline of the Aksumites, a lengthy gap follows; Some writers consider the period beginning from the 14th century an actual "Golden Age" of Geʽez literature—although by this time Geʽez was no longer a living language; in particular in the major enterprise of translating an extensive library of Coptic [[Arabic]] religious works into Geʽez.

While there is ample evidence that it had been replaced by Amharic in the south and by Tigrinya and Tigre in the north, Geʽez remained in use as the official written language until the 19th century, its status comparable to that of [[Medieval Latin]] in Europe.

At this time a lot of works of the [[Beta Israel]] had been turned into Hebraized (i.e. written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]) Geʽez, which made the gradual process of Geʽez being the liturgical language of the Beta Israel.{{sfn|Budge|1928|p=574}}

The [[Ethiopic Alexander Romance|''Ethiopic Alexander Romance'']] was produced in this period, the most important Geʽez-language Alexander legend, translated from an earlier Arabic recension of the [[Alexander Romance]] work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Asirvatham |first=Sulochana |date=2014 |title=The <i>Alexander romance</i> tradition from Egypt to Ethiopia |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC165410 |journal=Acta Classica}}</ref> Important [[hagiographies]] from this period include:

* the ''Gadle Samaʼetat'' "Acts of the Martyrs"
* the ''Gadle Hawaryat'' "Acts of the Apostles"
* the ''Senkessar'' or ''[[Synaxarium]]'', translated as "The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church"
* Other Lives of [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]], [[Saint George]], Saint [[Tekle Haymanot]], Saint [[Gabra Manfas Qeddus]]

Also at this time the ''[[Apostolic Constitutions]]'' was retranslated into Geʽez from Arabic. Another translation from this period is Zena ʼAyhud, a translation (probably from an Arabic translation) of Joseph ben Gurion's "History of the Jews" ("Sefer [[Josippon]]") written in Hebrew in the 10th century, which covers the period from the Captivity to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus.
Apart from theological works, the earliest contemporary Royal Chronicles of Ethiopia are date to the reign of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–44). With the appearance of the "Victory Songs" of Amda Seyon, this period also marks the beginning of Amharic literature.
The 14th century ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' or "Glory of the Kings" by the [[Neburaʼed Yeshaq]] of Aksum is among the most significant works of Ethiopian literature, combining history, allegory and symbolism in a retelling of the story of the [[Queen of Sheba]] (i.e., Saba), [[King Solomon]], and their son [[Menelik I of Ethiopia]]. Another work that began to take shape in this period is the ''Mashafa Aksum'' or "[[Book of Axum]]".{{sfn|Budge|1928|p=574}}

=== 15th to 16th centuries ===

The early 15th century ''Fekkare Iyasus'' "The Explication of Jesus" contains a prophecy of a king called ''Tewodros'', which rose to importance in 19th century Ethiopia as [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]] chose this throne name.

Literature flourished especially during the reign of Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]]. Written by the Emperor himself were ''Matsʼhafe Berhan'' ("The Book of Light") and ''Matshafe Milad'' ("The Book of Nativity"). Numerous homilies were written in this period, notably ''Retuʼa Haimanot'' ("True Orthodoxy") ascribed to [[John Chrysostom]]. Also of monumental importance was the appearance of the Geʽez translation of the [[Fetha Negest]] ("Laws of the Kings"), thought to have been around 1450, and ascribed to one Petros Abda Sayd — that was later to function as the supreme Law for Ethiopia, until it was replaced by a [[1931 Constitution of Ethiopia|modern Constitution in 1931]].

By the beginning of the 16th century, the Islamic invasions put an end to the flourishing of Ethiopian literature.
A letter of Abba ʼ[[Enbaqom]] (or "Habakkuk") to [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], entitled ''Anqasa Amin'' ("Gate of the Faith"), giving his reasons for abandoning [[Islam]], although probably first written in Arabic and later rewritten in an expanded Geʽez version around 1532, is considered one of the classics of later Geʽez literature.{{sfn|Pankhurst|2003}} During this period, Ethiopian writers begin to address differences between the Ethiopian and the Roman Catholic Church in such works as the ''Confession'' of Emperor [[Gelawdewos]], ''Sawana Nafs'' ("Refuge of the Soul"), ''Fekkare Malakot'' ("Exposition of the Godhead") and ''Haymanote Abaw'' ("Faith of the Fathers"). Around the year 1600, a number of works were translated from Arabic into Geʽez for the first time, including the ''Chronicle'' of [[John of Nikiu]] and the ''Universal History'' of [[George Elmacin]].

=== Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel ===

Geʽez is the liturgical language of [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]], [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo]], [[Ethiopian Catholic Church|Ethiopian Catholic]] and [[Eritrean Catholic Church|Eritrean Catholic]] Christians and the [[Beta Israel]], and is used in prayer and in scheduled public celebrations.

The [[liturgical rite]] used by the Christian churches is referred to as the [[Ethiopic Rite]]<ref>Bryan D. Spinks, ''The Sanctus in the Eucharistic Prayer'' (Cambridge University Press 2002 {{ISBN|978-0-521-52662-3}}), p. 119</ref><ref>Anscar J. Chupungco, ''Handbook for Liturgical Studies'' (Liturgical Press 1997 {{ISBN|978-0-8146-6161-1}}), p. 13</ref><ref>Archdale King, ''The Rites of Eastern Christendom'', vol. 1 (Gorgias Press LLC 2007 {{ISBN|978-1-59333-391-1}}), p. 533</ref> or the [[Geʽez Rite]].<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (C. Hurst & Co. 2000 {{ISBN|978-1-85065-393-6}}), p. 127</ref><ref>Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley (editors), ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'', vol. 2 (Eerdmans 1999 {{ISBN|978-90-04-11695-5}}), p. 158</ref><ref>David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky (editors), ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'' (Scarecrow Press 2013), p. 93</ref><ref>Walter Raunig, Steffen Wenig (editors), ''Afrikas Horn'' (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-447-05175-0}}), p. 171</ref>