Editing Gas turbine (section)

===Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)===
A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered [[automobile]]s, the largest by [[Chrysler]].<ref>[http://www.turbinecar.com/misc/History.pdf "History of Chrysler Corporation Gas Turbine Vehicles"] published by the Engineering Section 1979</ref><ref>[http://automobileart.homestead.com/ChryslerConceptCars.html "Chrysler Corp., Exner Concept Cars 1940 to 1961" undated], retrieved on 11 May 2008.</ref> More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company [[Bladon Jets]] has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next-generation electric vehicles. The objective of the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world's first commercially viable – and environmentally friendly – gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications.<ref name="bladon">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bladonmt.com/news|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313215440/http://www.bladonjets.com/news/bladon-jets-wins-tsb-award/|url-status=dead|title=News|archivedate=13 March 2012|website=Bladon Micro Turbine}}</ref>

The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.

====Concept cars====
[[File:Rover.jet1.jpg|thumb|The 1950 [[Rover Company|Rover]] JET1]]

The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in ''Popular Science'', there was no further work, beyond the paper stage.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7SADAAAAMBAJ&q=popular+science+May+1946&pg=PA121 |page=121 |title=Gas Turbines For Autos |date=May 1946 |journal=Popular Science |volume=146 |issue=8 |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref>

;Early concepts (1950s/60s)
In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer [[Maurice Wilks]] from British car manufacturers [[Rover Company|Rover]] unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater [[Rover JET1|JET1]] had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of {{convert|140|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, at a turbine speed of 50,000&nbsp;rpm. After being shown in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1950, JET1 was further developed, and was subjected to speed trials on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium in June 1952, where it exceeded {{cvt|150|mph|km/h|order=flip|round=5}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bobbitt |first=Malcolm |year=2007 |orig-year=1994 |chapter=III &ndash; Gas-Turbines and the Jet Era |chapter-url={{Google books|1sR68p5zDdsC|Rover P4 Series|page=71|plainurl=yes}} |title=Rover P4 Series |pages=84–87 |url={{Google books|1sR68p5zDdsC|Rover P4 Series|plainurl=yes}} |edition=revised |location=Dorchester, UK |publisher=Veloce Publishing |isbn=978-1-903706-57-2 |access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref> The car ran on [[petrol]], [[kerosene|paraffin (kerosene)]] or [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. JET1 is on display at the London [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]].

A French turbine-powered car, the SOCEMA-Grégoire, was displayed at the October 1952 [[Paris Auto Show]]. It was designed by the French engineer [[Jean-Albert Grégoire]].<ref name=retro05>{{cite web | url = http://www.classics.com/retro05.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181216115459/http://www.classics.com/retro05.html | archive-date = 2018-12-16 | title = Rétromobile 2005 | date = February 2005 | publisher = Classics.com | first = Stephane | last = Depreux }}</ref>

[[File:FirebirdI.jpg|thumb|[[General Motors Firebird|GM Firebird I]] ]]

The first turbine-powered car built in the US was the [[General Motors Firebird|GM Firebird I]] which began evaluations in 1953. While photos of the Firebird I may suggest that the jet turbine's thrust propelled the car like an aircraft, the turbine actually drove the rear wheels. The Firebird I was never meant as a commercial passenger car and was built solely for testing & evaluation as well as public relation purposes.<ref>{{cite journal| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nNwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA90|title=Gas Turbine Auto |journal=Popular Mechanics |date=March 1954 |page=90 |volume=101 |issue=3}}</ref> Additional Firebird concept cars, each powered by gas turbines, were developed for the 1953, 1956 and 1959 [[General Motors Motorama|Motorama]] auto shows. The GM Research gas turbine engine also was fitted to a series of [[transit bus]]es, starting with the Turbo-Cruiser I of 1953.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.4271/650714 |jstor=44554219 |title=The General Motors Research GT-309 Gas Turbine Engine |first1=W.A. |last1=Turunen |first2=J.S. |last2=Collman |journal=Transactions |series=SAE Technical Paper Series |volume=74 |date=1966 |publisher=Society of Automotive Engineering |pages=357–377}}</ref>

[[File:ChryslerTurbineEngine01 crop1.jpg|thumb|Engine compartment of a Chrysler 1963 Turbine car]]

Starting in 1954 with a modified [[Plymouth (automobile)|Plymouth]],<ref name="PS-turboPlymouth">{{cite journal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zSADAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=Turbo Plymouth Threatens Future of Standard |journal=Popular Science |date=July 1954 |page=102 |volume=165 |issue=1 |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref> the American car manufacturer [[Chrysler Corporation|Chrysler]] demonstrated several [[Chrysler Turbine engines|prototype gas turbine]]-powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty [[Chrysler Turbine Car]]s in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.allpar.com/mopar/turbine.html |title=Chrysler turbine engines and cars |publisher=Allpar.com |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref> Each of their turbines employed a unique rotating [[recuperator]], referred to as a regenerator that increased efficiency.<ref name="PS-turboPlymouth"/>

In 1954, [[Fiat]] unveiled a [[concept car]] with a turbine engine, called [[Fiat Turbina]]. This vehicle, looking like an aircraft with wheels, used a unique combination of both jet thrust and the engine driving the wheels. Speeds of {{convert|175|mph|km/h|abbr=on|order=flip|round=5|0}} were claimed.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zSADAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA20 |title=Italy's Turbo Car Hits 175 m.p.h. |journal=Popular Mechanics |date=July 1954 |page=120 |volume=165 |issue=1 |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref>

In the 1960s, Ford and GM also were developing gas turbine semi-trucks. Ford displayed the Big Red at the [[1964 World's Fair]].<ref name=bigred3>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedrive.com/news/37925/we-found-fords-incredible-turbine-powered-semi-truck-big-red-thats-been-lost-for-decades |title=We Found Ford's Incredible Turbine-Powered Semi-Truck 'Big Red' That's Been Lost for Decades |work=The Drive |location=US |first=Peter |last=Holderith |date=24 March 2021 |access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref>  With the trailer, it was {{cvt|96|foot|m|order=flip}} long, {{cvt|13|foot|m|order=flip}} high, and painted crimson red.  It contained the Ford-developed gas turbine engine, with output power and torque of {{cvt|600|hp|kW|order=flip}} and {{cvt|855|lbft|order=flip|round=5}}.  The cab boasted a highway map of the continental U.S., a mini-kitchen, bathroom, and a TV for the co-driver.  The fate of the truck was unknown for several decades, but it was rediscovered in early 2021 in private hands, having been restored to running order.<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DuGqP25jnQU | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/DuGqP25jnQU| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=" Big Red " Experimental Gas Turbine Semi Truck 1964 New York World's Fair XD10344 |publisher=Ford Motor Company |via=YouTube |year=1966 |access-date=4 September 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=bigred2>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedrive.com/news/35030/fords-giant-turbine-semi-truck-big-red-is-lost-somewhere-in-the-american-southeast |title=Ford's Giant Turbine Semi-Truck 'Big Red' Is Lost Somewhere in the American Southeast |work=The Drive |location=US |first=Peter |last=Holderith |date=19 August 2020 |access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref> The Chevrolet division of GM built the ''Turbo Titan'' series of concept trucks with turbine motors as analogs of the Firebird concepts, including Turbo Titan I ({{circa|1959}}, shares GT-304 engine with Firebird II), Turbo Titan II ({{circa|1962}}, shares GT-305 engine with Firebird III), and [[Chevrolet Turbo Titan III|Turbo Titan III]] (1965, GT-309 engine); in addition, the GM Bison gas turbine truck was shown at the 1964 World's Fair.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.topspeed.com/cars/guides/the-story-of-turbo-titan-chevy-s-long-lost-gas-turbine-truck/ |title=The story of Turbo Titan - Chevy's long-lost gas turbine truck |first=Iulian |last=Dnistran |date=April 20, 2021 |work=TopSpeed |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref>

;Emissions and fuel economy (1970s/80s)
As a result of the U.S. [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] Amendments of 1970, research was funded into developing automotive gas turbine technology.<ref>{{cite book|title=Issues in Federally Supported Research on Advanced Automotive Power Systems |first1=Lawrence H. |last1=Linden |first2=Subramanyam |last2=Kumar |first3=Paul R. |last3=Samuelson |publisher=Division of Policy Research and Analysis, National Science Foundation |date=December 1977 |page=49 |hdl=1721.1/31259 }}</ref> Design concepts and vehicles were conducted by [[Chrysler]], [[General Motors]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] (in collaboration with [[Garrett AiResearch|AiResearch]]), and [[American Motors]] (in conjunction with [[Williams International|Williams Research]]).<ref>Linden, page 53.</ref> Long-term tests were conducted to evaluate comparable cost efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verrelli |first1=L. D. |last2=Andary |first2=C. J. |title=Exhaust Emission Analysis of the Williams Research Gas Turbine AMC Hornet |journal=National Technical Information Service |date=May 1972 |id=PB218687 |osti=5038506 }}</ref> Several [[AMC Hornet]]s were powered by a small Williams regenerative gas turbine weighing {{convert|250|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} and producing {{convert|80|hp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}} at 4450&nbsp;rpm.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Norbye |first=Jan P. |title=Tiny 80-HP gas turbine to power compact car |journal=Popular Science |date=March 1971 |volume=198 |issue=3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ogAAAAAAMBAJ&q=Tiny+80-HP+gas+turbine+to+power+compact+car&pg=PA34 |page=34 |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Williams Turbine Takes the Road |journal=Motor Trend |date=November 1971 |volume=23 |issue=11 |first=Karl |last=Ludvigsen |author-link=Karl Ludvigsen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Jan P. |last1=Norbye |first2=Jim |last2=Dunne |journal=Popular Science |date=September 1973 |page=59 |title=Gas turbine car: it's now or never |volume=302 |issue=3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=scA6lVmzQA8C&pg=PA56}}</ref>

In 1982, General Motors used an [[Oldsmobile Delta 88]] powered by a gas turbine using pulverised coal dust. This was considered for the United States and the western world to reduce dependence on [[1980s oil glut|middle east oil at the time]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/04/automobiles/04COAL.html | title=Coal in Your Stocking? Fuel up the Cadillac! | newspaper=The New York Times | date=2 January 2009 | last1=Roy | first1=Rex }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.autoweek.com/car-life/but-wait-theres-more/a1812701/oldsmobile-was-powered-coal-burning-turbine-engine/ | title=This Oldsmobile was powered by a coal-burning turbine engine | date=16 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://drivemag.com/news/gm-made-a-coal-powered-car-in-the-80s | title=GM made a coal-powered car in the 80s | date=20 March 2018 }}</ref>

[[Toyota]] demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars, such as the [[Toyota Century GT45|Century gas turbine hybrid]] in 1975, the [[Toyota Sports 800#Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid|Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid]] in 1979 and the [[Toyota GTV|GTV]] in 1985. No production vehicles were made. The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle.

;Later development
In the early 1990s, [[Volvo]] introduced the [[Volvo ECC]] which was a gas turbine powered [[hybrid electric vehicle]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/ |title=Article in Green Car |publisher=Greencar.com |date=31 October 2007 |access-date=13 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813152350/http://www.greencarreports.com/ |archive-date=13 August 2012}}</ref>

In 1993, [[General Motors]] developed a gas turbine powered EV1 series [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]]—as a prototype of the [[General Motors EV1]]. A [[Williams International]] 40&nbsp;kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery–electric [[powertrain]]. The turbine design included a recuperator. In 2006, GM went into the [[EcoJet concept car]] project with [[Jay Leno]].

At the [[2010 Paris Motor Show]] [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]] demonstrated its [[Jaguar C-X75]] concept car. This electrically powered [[supercar]] has a top speed of {{convert|204|mph|abbr=on|0}} and can go from {{convert|0|to|62|mph|abbr=on|0}} in 3.4 seconds. It uses lithium-ion batteries to power four electric motors which combine to produce 780&nbsp;bhp. It will travel {{convert|68|mi}} on a single charge of the batteries, and uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re-charge the batteries extending the range to {{convert|560|mi}}.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.automoblog.net/2010/10/01/the-electric-cat-jaguar-c-x75-concept-supercar/ |title=The Electric Cat: Jaguar C-X75 Concept Supercar |publisher=Automoblog.net |date=1 October 2010 |first=Chris |last=Nagy |work=Automoblog |access-date=13 March 2016}}</ref>

====Racing cars====
[[File:STP Turbine.jpg|thumb|The 1967 ''STP Oil Treatment Special'' on display at the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] Hall of Fame Museum, with the [[Pratt & Whitney]] gas turbine shown]]
[[File:Howmet TX Daytona.jpg|thumb|A 1968 [[Howmet TX]], the only turbine-powered race car to have won a race]]

The first race car (in concept only) fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone Tire & Rubber company.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Popular Science |title=Turbine Drives Retired Racing Car |page=89 |date=June 1955 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=biYDAAAAMBAJ&q=popular+science+1930&pg=PA89 |access-date=23 July 2018}}</ref> The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by Rover and the [[British Racing Motors|BRM]] [[Formula One]] team joined forces to produce the [[Rover-BRM]], a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the [[1963 24 Hours of Le Mans]], driven by [[Graham Hill]] and [[Richie Ginther]]. It averaged {{convert|107.8|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and had a top speed of {{convert|142|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the [[Howmet TX]], which ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the [[1968 24 Hours of Le Mans]]. The cars used [[Continental Motors Company|Continental]] gas turbines, which eventually set six [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|FIA]] land speed records for turbine-powered cars.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://website.lineone.net/~pete.stowe/pete_howmet.htm |title=The history of the Howmet TX turbine car of 1968, still the world's only turbine powered race winner |publisher=Pete Stowe Motorsport History |date=June 2006 |access-date=2008-01-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080302012133/http://website.lineone.net/~pete.stowe/pete_howmet.htm |archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref>

For [[open wheel racing]], 1967's revolutionary [[STP-Paxton Turbocar]] fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend [[Andy Granatelli]] and driven by [[Parnelli Jones]] nearly won the [[Indianapolis 500]]; the [[Pratt & Whitney PT6|Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62]] powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. The next year the STP [[Lotus 56]] turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 [[Team Lotus]] principal [[Colin Chapman]] introduced the [[Lotus 56| Lotus 56B]] F1 car, powered by a [[Pratt & Whitney PT6|Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76]] gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with [[turbo lag]].

====Buses====
General Motors fitted the [[GM Whirlfire engine|GT-30x series of gas turbines (branded "Whirlfire")]] to several prototype buses in the 1950s and 1960s, including [[GM "old-look" transit bus#Turbo-Cruiser I|Turbo-Cruiser I]] (1953, GT-300); [[GM New Look bus#Variants based on the New Look|Turbo-Cruiser II]] (1964, GT-309); Turbo-Cruiser III (1968, GT-309); [[Rapid Transit Series|RTX]] (1968, GT-309); and [[Transbus Program|RTS 3T]] (1972).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.curbsideclassic.com/bus-stop-classic/bus-stop-classics-general-motors-gm-turbo-cruiser-i-ii-and-iii-urban-transit-coaches-maverick-top-gun-your-bus-is-here/ |title=Bus Stop Classics: General Motors (GM) Turbo Cruiser I, II and III Urban Transit Coaches – Maverick (Top Gun), Your Bus is Here... |first=Jim |last=Brophy |date=June 2, 2018 |website=Curbside Classic |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref>

The arrival of the [[Capstone Turbine]] has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and [[DesignLine Corporation]] in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore, and New York City.

[[Brescia|Brescia Italy]] is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city.<ref name="Source">{{cite web |url=http://draft.fgm-amor.at/altermotive/study_sheet.phtml?study_id=2866&lang1=en |title=Serial Hybrid Busses for a Public Transport scheme in Brescia (Italy) |publisher=Draft.fgm-amor.at |access-date=13 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316112717/http://draft.fgm-amor.at/altermotive/study_sheet.phtml?study_id=2866&lang1=en |archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref>

====Motorcycles====
The [[MTT Turbine Superbike]] appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine – specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283&nbsp;kW (380&nbsp;bhp). Speed-tested to 365&nbsp;km/h or 227&nbsp;mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.