Editing Galen (section)

===Renaissance===
The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.<ref>Stefania Fortuna, [https://www.academia.edu/11641978/The_Latin_Editions_of_Galen_s_Opera_omnia_1490_1625_and_Their_Prefaces "The Latin Editions of Galen's Opera omnia (1490–1625) and Their Prefaces"], ''Early Science and Medicine'' '''17''' (2012): 391–412.</ref>

The Renaissance, and the [[Fall of Constantinople|fall of the Byzantine Empire]] (1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This [[New Learning]] and the [[Renaissance humanism|Humanist]] movement, particularly the work of [[Thomas Linacre|Linacre]], promoted ''[[literae humaniores]]'' including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, ''De Naturalibus Facultatibus'' appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek.<ref name="brock"/> The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by [[Paracelsus]]' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in [[University of Basel|Basel]].<ref name="brock"/> Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the [[Great Lavra]] of [[Mt Athos]]. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the [[Tree of Jesse]], with Galen between the [[Sibyl]] and [[Aristotle]].<ref name="nutton84">{{cite web|url=http://www.dahsm.medschool.ucsf.edu/history/IntroCourseIPDF/Nutton_Galen_to_Alex.pdf|title=Nutton V. From Galen to Alexander, aspects of medicine and medical practice in late antiquity. Dunbarton Oaks Papers. 38, 1984|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216212006/http://www.dahsm.medschool.ucsf.edu/history/IntroCourseIPDF/Nutton_Galen_to_Alex.pdf|archive-date=16 December 2008}}</ref>

Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as [[Vesalius]] in the 16th century.<ref name="brock"/> In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as [[Jacques Dubois|Jacobus Sylvius]]. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Cosans C|year = 1997|title = Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy|journal = Journal of the History of Biology|volume = 30|issue = 1|pages = 35–54|doi = 10.1023/A:1004266427468|pmid = 11618979|s2cid = 35323972}}</ref> The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of [[Aristotle]] and [[Mondino de Liuzzi]]. One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the [[interventricular septum]] of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (''Nat Fac III xv''). However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "''Christianismi restitutio''" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remained hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.

[[Michael Servetus]], using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was [[Vesalius]]' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to [[Johann Winter von Andernach]],<ref>2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. Note 481 (.."''primum Andrea Vesalem..Post hunc, Michael Villanovanus familiariter milhi in consectionibus adhibitus est, vir in omni genere litterarum ornatissimus in Galenic doctrina, vix illi secundus..''" Audrey, Jean</ref> who taught both. In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the ''Opera Omnia'' by Galen were very important, beginning from the [[Aldine Press]]' [[List of editiones principes in Greek|editio princeps in Venice in 1525]].<ref>J. P. Byrne, ''Encyclopedia of the Black Death'', ABC-CLIO, 2012, p. 231</ref> It was followed in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as [[Vesalius]], [[John Caius|Caius]], or [[Janus Cornarius]]. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría<ref>2002 " Michael Servetus in the  'Opera Omnia' of Galenus of 1548–1551 printed by Jean Frellon", González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Book of communications, XII National Congress on History of Medicine., Albacete, 7–9 February, pp. 42–43</ref><ref>2004 "The edition of Lyon of the "Opera omnia' by Galenus of the printer Jean Frellon (1548–1551) commented by Michael Servetus", Francisco Javier González Echeverría and Ancín Chandía, Teresa. In: Medicine in the presence of the new millennium: a historical perspective. Coordinators: José Martínez Pérez, Isabel Porras Gallo, Pedro Samblás Tilve, Mercedes Del Cura González, Minutes from the XII Congress in History of Medicine, 7–9 February 2002, Albacete. Ed. Of the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, pp. 645–657.</ref> presented research that became an accepted communication in the [[International Society for the History of Medicine]],<ref>2011 September 9th, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine, (S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona. ''New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus)'' & ''New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus)''</ref> which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve ([[Michael Servetus]]) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in [[Lyon]].<ref>2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. pp. 194–204</ref><ref>[http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221134108/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html|date=21 February 2017}} Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen, by Michael de Villanueva</ref>

Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of [[Andrea Cesalpino]], [[Hieronymus Fabricius|Fabricio of Acquapendente]], and [[William Harvey]].<ref name="brock"/> Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on [[bloodletting]] as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.<ref>Brian, P., 1986, ''Galen on Bloodletting,'' Cambridge University Press</ref>