Editing First Opium War (section)

=== Central China ===
[[File:HMS Wellesley and Squadron in Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|HMS ''Wellesley'' and the British squadron sailing from Hong Kong for the attack on Xiamen in 1841]]Following their withdrawal from Guangzhou, the British relocated the expeditionary force to Hong Kong. Just as with the Chinese commanders, the British leaders debated how the war should be continued. Elliot wanted to cease military operations and reopen trade, while Major General Gough wanted to capture the city of Amoy and blockade the Yangtze River.<ref>Rait (1903) p. 204</ref> In July, a typhoon struck Hong Kong, damaging British ships in the harbour and destroying some of the facilities the expedition was building on the island.<ref>Rait (1903) p. 202</ref> The situation changed when, on 29 July, Elliot was informed that he had been replaced as Superintendent by [[Henry Pottinger]], who arrived in Hong Kong on 10 August to begin his administration. Pottinger wanted to negotiate terms with the Qing for the entire country of China, rather than just the Pearl River, and so he turned away Chinese envoys from Guangzhou and gave permission for the expeditionary force to proceed with its war plans. Admiral [[Sir William Parker, 1st Baronet, of Shenstone|William Parker, 1st Baronet of Shenstone]] also arrived in Hong Kong to replace [[Humphrey Fleming Senhouse]] (who had died of a fever on 29 June) as the commander of the British naval forces in China. It was agreed by the British commanders that combat operations should be moved north to put pressure on Peking, and on 21 August the fleet sailed for Amoy.<ref>Rait (1903) 203–208</ref> [[File:18th Royal Irish at Amoy.jpg|thumb|left|British troops at the [[Battle of Amoy]], 1841]] On 25 August, the British fleet entered the [[Jiulong River]] estuary and arrived at Amoy. The city was prepared for a naval assault, as Qing military engineers had built several artillery batteries into the granite cliffs overlooking the river. A purely naval assault was considered too risky by Parker, prompting Gough to order a combined naval and ground attack on the defences. On 26 August British marines and regular infantry under the covering fire of the Royal Navy flanked and destroyed the Chinese defences guarding the river. Several large British ships failed to destroy the largest of the Chinese batteries, which withstood over 12,000 cannonballs being fired at it,<ref>Rait (1903) p. 212</ref> so the position was scaled and [[Battle of Amoy|captured by the British infantry]]. The city of Amoy was abandoned on 27 August, and British soldiers entered the inner town where they blew up the [[citadel]]'s powder magazine. 26 Chinese junks and 128 cannons were captured, with the captured guns being thrown into the river by the British. As Lord Palmerston wanted Amoy to become an international trade port at the end of the war, Gough ordered that no looting be tolerated and had officers enforce the death penalty for anyone found to be plundering. However, many Chinese merchants refused to ask for British protection out of fear of being branded as traitors to the Qing dynasty. The British withdrew to an island on the river, where they established a small garrison and blockaded the Jiulong River. With the city empty of any army, peasants, criminals, and deserters looted the town. The Qing army retook the city and restored order several days later, after which the city governor declared that a victory had been won and 5 British ships sunk.<ref>''Frontier and Overseas Expeditions From India'', vol. 6, p. 382</ref><ref name="Bernard-1847" />{{page range too broad|date=September 2021}}<ref>Rait (1903) pp. 208–218</ref>{{page range too broad|date=September 2021}}

In Britain, changes in Parliament resulted in Lord Palmerston being removed from his post as Foreign Minister on 30 August. [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne]] replaced him, and sought a more measured approach to the situation in China. Lamb remained a supporter of the war.<ref>Hoiberg. pp. 27–28</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tsang |first=Steve Yui-Sang |title=A modern history of Hong Kong |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84511-419-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2021}}

In September 1841, the British transport ship ''[[Nerbudda (ship)|Nerbudda]]'' was shipwrecked on a reef off the northern coast of Formosa after a brief gunnery duel with a Chinese fort. This sinking was followed by the loss of the brig ''Ann'' on another reef in March 1842. The survivors of both ships were captured and marched to southern Taiwan, where they were imprisoned. 197 were executed by Qing authorities on 10 August 1842, while an additional 87 died from ill-treatment in captivity. This became known as the [[Nerbudda incident]].<ref>Bate, H. Maclear (1952). ''Reports from Formosa'' New York: E. P. Dutton. p. 174.</ref>

[[File:Second taking of Chusan.jpg|thumb|500px|The British forces invasion and [[Capture of Chusan (1841)|Second Capture of Chusan]]]]
October saw the British solidify their control over the central Chinese coast. Zhoushan had been exchanged for Hong Kong on the authority of Qishan in January 1841, after which the island had been re-garrisoned by the Qing. Fearing that the Chinese would improve the island's defences, the British began a military invasion. The British attacked the Qing on 1 October. The battle of the [[Capture of Chusan (1841)|Second Capture of Chusan]] ensued. The British forces killed 1500 Qing soldiers and captured Zhoushan. The victory reestablished British control over Dinghai's important harbour.<ref>MacPherson 1843, pp. 216, 359.</ref>{{better source needed|reason=only primary source provided from one side|date=February 2022}}

On 10 October, a British naval force [[Battle of Chinhai|bombarded and captured]] a fort on the outskirts of [[Ningbo]] in central China. A battle broke out between the British army and a Chinese force of 1500 men on the road between the town of Chinhai and Ningbo, during which the Chinese were routed. Following the defeat, Chinese authorities evacuated Ningbo and the empty city was taken by the British on 13 October. An imperial cannon manufactory in the city was captured by the British, reducing the ability of the Qing to replace their lost equipment, and the fall of the city threatened the nearby [[Qiantang River]].<ref>MacPherson 1843, pp. 381–385</ref><ref>Hall & Bernard 1846, p. 260</ref> The capture of Ningbo forced the British command to examine their policy towards occupied Chinese territory and prizes of war. Admiral Parker and Superintendent Pottinger wanted a percentage of all captured Chinese property to be turned over to the British as legal prizes of war, while General Gough argued that this would only turn the Chinese population against the British, and that if property had to be seized, it should be public property rather than private. British policy eventually settled that 10% of all property captured by the British expeditionary forces would be seized as war loot in retaliation for injustices done to British merchants. Gough later stated that this edict would compel his men to "punish one set of robbers for the benefit of another."<ref>Rait (1903) pp. 236–240</ref>

Fighting ceased for the winter of 1841 while the British resupplied.<ref name="Luscombe">{{Cite web |last=Luscombe |first=Stephen |title=The British Empire, Imperialism, Colonialism, Colonies |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/asia/china/opiumwar.htm |access-date=30 May 2017 |website=www.britishempire.co.uk}}</ref> False reports sent by Yishan to the emperor in Beijing resulted in the continued British threat being downplayed. In late 1841 the Daoguang Emperor discovered that his officials in Guangzhou and Amoy had been sending him embellished reports. He ordered the governor of [[Guangxi]], [[Liang Chang-chü]], to send him clear accounts of the events in Guangzhou, noting that since Guangxi was a neighbouring province, Liang must be receiving independent accounts. He warned Liang that he would be able to verify his information by obtaining secret inquiries from other places.<ref>Waley 1958, p. 73</ref> Yishan was recalled to the capital and faced trial by the imperial court, which removed him from command. Now aware of the severity of the British threat, Chinese towns and cities began to fortify against naval incursions.<ref name="Lovell-2015" />{{page needed|date=November 2021}}<ref name="Peyrefitte-1792" />{{page range too broad|date=September 2021}}

In the spring of 1842 the Daoguang Emperor ordered his cousin [[Yijing (prince)|Yijing]] to retake the city of Ningbo. In the ensuing [[Battle of Ningpo]] on 10 March, the British garrison repelled the assault with rifle fire and naval artillery. At Ningbo the British lured the Qing army into the city streets before opening fire, resulting in heavy Chinese casualties.<ref name="BSI-1842b">''Bulletins of State Intelligence''&nbsp;1842, pp. 578, 594</ref><ref name="Waley 2013 p. 171">[[Arthur Waley|Waley, Arthur]]&nbsp;(2013) p. 171</ref><ref>Lenton Robbren. [http://www.tibet.cn/info/history/t20050316_18450_1.htm "Tibetan Expeditionary Force participating in the Opium War"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714142143/http://www.tibet.cn/info/history/t20050316_18450_1.htm |date=14 July 2014 }}.   China Tibet Information Center.</ref> The British pursued the retreating Chinese army, [[Battle of Tzeki|capturing]] the nearby city of [[Cixi City|Cixi]] on 15 March.<ref>''Bulletins''&nbsp;1842, p. 601</ref>

The important harbour of [[Zhapu]] was captured on 18 May in the [[Battle of Chapu]].<ref name="Ref-1" /> A British fleet bombarded the town, forcing its surrender. A holdout of 300 soldiers of the [[Eight Banners]] stalled the advance of British army for several hours, an act of heroism that was commended by Gough.<ref>Rait 1903, p. 264</ref><ref name="BSI-1842">''Bulletins of State Intelligence''&nbsp;1842, p. 918</ref>