Editing Ethics (section)

== Applied ethics ==
{{main|Applied ethics}}

Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Darwall|2003|p=17}} | {{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA619 619–620]}} }}</ref> is the branch of ethics and [[applied philosophy]] that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations. Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles. Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether additional domain-specific factors need to be considered.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. Definitions}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead section, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Petersen|Ryberg|2022}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 174–175]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Cesarean section.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of surgery|One of the difficulties of applied ethics is to determine how to apply general ethical principles to concrete situations, like [[medical procedure]]s.]]

One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations.<ref>{{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 175–176]}}</ref> For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a [[medical procedure]] like abortion. One reason is that it may not be clear how the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's [[personhood]] applies to a fetus or, from a utilitarian perspective, what the long-term consequences are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 175–176]}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Abortion''"|ref=Gordon, "''Abortion''"|loc=Lead section, § 2. Personhood}} }}</ref> This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down [[methodology]] by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain.<ref>{{harvnb|Beaucham|2003|pp=7–9}}</ref> A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, known as [[casuistry]]. This method does not start from universal principles but from moral intuitions about particular cases. It seeks to arrive at moral principles relevant to a specific domain, which may not be applicable to other domains.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Beaucham|2003|pp=7–9}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 176–117]}} | {{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 2. Theory and Practice}} | {{harvnb|Fives|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f78YDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 171]}} }}</ref> In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by [[ethical dilemma]]s in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.<ref>{{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 2. Theory and Practice}}</ref>

Applied ethics covers issues belonging to both the [[private sphere]], like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the [[public sphere]], like moral problems posed by new technologies and duties toward future generations.<ref>{{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 1. Definitions}}</ref> Major branches include [[bioethics]], [[business ethics]], and [[professional ethics]]. There are many other branches, and their domains of inquiry often overlap.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ryberg|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsCRosM367gC&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Meynell|Paron|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VrTFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA620 620]}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 174–175]}} }}</ref>

=== Bioethics ===
{{main|Bioethics}}
Bioethics covers moral problems associated with [[Life|living organisms]] and [[biological]] disciplines.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gillon|1998|pp=267–268}} }}</ref> A key problem in bioethics is how features such as [[consciousness]], being able to feel pleasure and pain, [[rationality]], and personhood affect the moral status of entities. These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals, and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 4. The Idea of Moral Status in Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 4a. Theories of Moral Standing and Personhood}} }}</ref> According to [[anthropocentrism]], only humans have a basic moral status. This suggests that all other entities possess a derivative moral status only insofar as they impact human life. [[Sentientism]], by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings. Further positions include [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and [[ecocentrism]], which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=288–289}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref>

Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like [[abortion]], [[cloning]], [[stem cell research]], [[euthanasia]], [[suicide]], [[animal testing]], [[intensive animal farming]], [[nuclear waste]], and [[air pollution]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. Preliminary Distinctions}} }}</ref>

Bioethics can be divided into [[medical ethics]], [[animal ethics]], and [[environmental ethics]] based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3a. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Peppard|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFBgL8b4_JgC&pg=PR18 xviii]}} | {{harvnb|Frey|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics. The [[Hippocratic Oath]] is one of the earliest texts to engage in medical ethics by establishing ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a [[Medical ethics#Non-maleficence|prohibition to harm the patient]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}}</ref> Medical ethics often addresses issues related to the start and end of life. It examines the moral status of fetuses, for example, whether they are full-fledged persons and whether abortion is a form of [[murder]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}} }}</ref> Ethical issues also arise about whether a person has the right to end their life in cases of terminal illness or chronic suffering and if [[Assisted suicide|doctors may help them do so]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Delden|1998|pp=200–201}} }}</ref> Other topics in medical ethics include [[medical confidentiality]], [[informed consent]], research on human beings, [[organ transplantation]], and access to [[healthcare]].<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

[[File:Battery hens -Bastos, Sao Paulo, Brazil-31March2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Photo of battery hens in Brazil|Harm done to animals is a particular concern in animal ethics, for example, as a result of [[intensive animal farming]].]]

Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals. This field often emphasizes the importance of [[animal welfare]] while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals. There is wide agreement that it is wrong to [[Cruelty to animals|torture animals]] for fun. The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests. This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3c. Animal Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=317–319}} }}</ref> A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of [[animal rights]]. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans should respect this status when interacting with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=333–334}}</ref> Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Francione|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ocbdJD2oUW0C&pg=PA115 115–116]}} | {{harvnb|Yount|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R4jQ_upQZroC&pg=PA26 26]}} }}</ref>

Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, [[natural resource]]s, and [[ecosystem]]s. In its widest sense, it covers the whole [[cosmos]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Sandler|1998|pp=105–106}} | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> In the domain of [[agriculture]], this concerns the circumstances under which the vegetation of an area may be cleared to use it for farming and the implications of planting [[genetically modified crops]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=§ 1. Introduction: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref> On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of [[global warming]] and people's responsibility on the individual and [[Collective responsibility|collective levels]], including topics like [[climate justice]] and duties towards future generations. Environmental ethicists often promote [[Sustainability|sustainable practices]] and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 1. Preliminary Distinctions, § 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Cochrane|loc=§ 2. Radical Ecology}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LFBVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Roser|Seidel|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gislDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 i]}} }}</ref>

=== Business and professional ethics ===
{{main|Business ethics|Professional ethics}}
Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations.<ref name="Rendtorff 1998 365–366">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rendtorff|1998|pp=365–366}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 2. Business Ethics}} }}</ref> A key topic is [[corporate social responsibility]], which is the responsibility of corporations to act in a manner that benefits society at large. Corporate social responsibility is a complex issue since many stakeholders are directly and indirectly involved in corporate decisions, such as the [[CEO]], the [[board of directors]], and the [[shareholders]]. A closely related topic is the question of whether corporations themselves, and not just their stakeholders, have moral agency.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 2. Business Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Rendtorff|1998|pp=365–366}} }}</ref> Business ethics further examines the role of honesty and fairness in business practices as well as the moral implications of [[bribery]], [[conflict of interest]], protection of investors and consumers, [[worker's rights]], [[ethical leadership]], and corporate [[philanthropy]].<ref name="Rendtorff 1998 365–366"/>

Professional ethics is a closely related field that studies ethical principles applying to members of a specific [[profession]], like [[engineer]]s, [[medical doctor]]s, [[lawyer]]s, and [[teacher]]s. It is a diverse field since different professions often have different responsibilities.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Airaksinen|1998|p=}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 5. Professional Ethics}} }}</ref> Principles applying to many professions include that the professional has the required expertise for the intended work and that they have personal integrity and are trustworthy. Further principles are to serve the interest of their target group, follow [[client confidentiality]], and respect and uphold the client's rights, such as informed consent.<ref>{{harvnb|Airaksinen|1998|pp=617–620}}</ref> More precise requirements often vary between professions. A cornerstone of [[engineering ethics]] is to protect public safety, health, and well-being.<ref>{{harvnb|Catalano|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bYhyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17]}}</ref> [[Legal ethics]] emphasizes the importance of respect for justice, personal integrity, and confidentiality.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|Evans|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dVoptUyrwC&pg=PA22 22–23]}}</ref> Key factors in [[journalism ethics]] include accuracy, truthfulness, independence, and [[impartiality]] as well as proper [[Attribution (journalism)|attribution]] to avoid [[plagiarism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Medvecky|Leach|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NpO7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Mentan|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OwbOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA280 280]}} | {{harvnb|Patching|Hirst|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FFclAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 69]}} }}</ref>

=== Other subfields ===
Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature. [[Communication ethics]] covers moral principles of [[Communication|communicative conduct]]. Two key issues in it are [[freedom of speech]] and speech responsibility. Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship. Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvalnes|2023|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-28971-2_12 101, 105]}} | {{harvnb|Christians|2005}} }}</ref> A closely related field is [[information ethics]], which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using [[information]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|ten Have|Patrão Neves|2021|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-54161-3_310 633]}} | {{harvnb|Elrod|Smith|2005}} }}</ref>

[[File:Little Boy bomb.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a nuclear weapon|[[Nuclear ethics]] addresses the moral implications of nuclear technology, such as [[atom bomb]]s.]]

The [[ethics of technology]] examines the moral issues associated with the creation and use of any artifact, from simple spears to high-tech computers and [[nanotechnology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Braunack-Mayer|Street|Palmer|1998|pp=321–322}}</ref> Central topics in the ethics of technology include the risks associated with creating new technologies, their responsible use, and questions about human enhancement through technological means, such as [[performance-enhancing drugs]] and [[Human genetic enhancement|genetic enhancement]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braunack-Mayer|Street|Palmer|1998|pp=323–326}} | {{harvnb|Robson|Tsou|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3gumEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16–17]}} }}</ref> Important subfields include [[computer ethics]], [[ethics of artificial intelligence]], [[machine ethics]], [[Ethics of nanotechnologies|ethics of nanotechnology]], and [[nuclear ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tzafestas|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EdpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Mitcham|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0uF-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101]}} }}</ref>

{{anchor|Military ethics}}
The [[ethics of war]] investigates moral problems of war and violent conflicts. According to [[just war theory]], waging war is morally justified if it fulfills certain conditions. These conditions are commonly divided into requirements concerning the [[Jus ad bellum|cause to initiate violent activities]], such as self-defense, and the [[Jus in bello|way those violent activities are conducted]], such as [[Proportionality (law)#International humanitarian law|avoiding excessive harm to civilians]] in the pursuit of [[legitimate military target]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Frowe|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Lazar|2020|loc=Lead section, § 3. Jus Ad Bellum, § 4. Jus in Bello}} | {{harvnb|Sorabji|Rodin|2007|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> Military ethics is a closely related field that is interested in the conduct of [[military personnel]]. It governs questions of the circumstances under which they are permitted to kill enemies, destroy infrastructure, and put the lives of their own troops at risk.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolfendale|2007|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230592803_4 47–78]}} | {{harvnb|Baumann|2007|pp=34–35}} }}</ref> Additional topics are the recruitment, training, and discharge of military personnel.<ref>{{harvnb|Fotion|1998|pp=121, 123–124, 126}}</ref>

Other fields of applied ethics include [[political ethics]], which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hall|Sabl|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4bhiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Gay|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VKprw2w_IJQC&pg=PA189 189]}} }}</ref> educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices,<ref>{{harvnb|Maxwell|2023|pp=[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-22767-8_1323 609–610]}}</ref> and [[sexual ethics]], which addresses the moral implications of [[Human sexual activity|sexual behavior]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boonin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8L1dEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}</ref>