Editing Eighth Crusade (section)

==The Eighth Crusade==
After his victory over at Antioch, Baibars paused to assess his situation. The Mongols were restless and there were rumours of a new Crusade to be led by Louis IX. Hugh III of Cyprus asked for a truce and Baibars replied with an embassy to Acre to offer a cessation of hostilities. Bohemond VI asked to be included in the truce, but was offended when he was addressed as mere count. Nevertheless, he accepted what was offered to him. There were some minor raids into the Christian lands, but on the whole the truce was observed.{{sfn|Madden|2010|pp=173–194|loc=Louis IX, Charles of Anjou and the Tunis Crusade of 1270}}

===Louis IX again takes the cross===
The years after Louis IX left the Holy Land saw an escalation of the military threat posed by the Mamluks with their capturing a number of Frankish towns and fortifications and subjected Acre to frequent attack. The unthinkable––the complete loss of the kingdom––became a distinct possibility, reviving long-dormant plans for a new Crusade. The [[Second Barons' War]] was all but over with the defeat of [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] and his rebellious barons by [[Edward I|Edward I of England]] at the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265. The victory of Louis' brother [[Charles I of Anjou]] in the [[Battle of Benevento]] in 1266 brought the [[Kingdom of Sicily#Angevin Sicily|Kingdom of Sicily]] under [[Capetian dynasty|Capetian]] control, finally freeing up French fighting forces. This encouraged [[Pope Clement IV|Clement IV]] to revive the plans for a Crusade begun on 1263 under Urban IV, proclaiming a new expedition to the Holy Land in January 1266. According to the ''Chronica minor auctore Minorita Erphordiensi'':<blockquote>
In the year of our Lord 1266, Pope Clement sent out letters throughout the kingdom of Germany commanding the Dominicans and Franciscans to preach the cross faithfully and urgently against the Sultan of Babylon, who is the Pharaoh of Egypt, and against the Saracens overseas, so that the suffering of the Christians [there] might be alleviated and for the support of the Holy Land.<ref name=":0">Morton, Nicholas (2011). "[https://www.academia.edu/5224524/_In_Subsidium_The_declining_contribution_of_Germany_and_Eastern_Europe_to_the_crusades_to_the_Holy_Land_1187_1291_German_Historical_Institute_Bulletin_2011_33_66 ''In subsidium'': The Declining Contribution of Germany and Eastern Europe to the Crusades to the Holy Land, 1221–1291]". ''German Historical Institute London Bulletin''. '''33''' (1): 38–66</ref>
</blockquote>
[[File:Primat-StDenis.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Primat of Saint-Denis]] writing the ''Roman des rois'', from the ''Grandes Chroniques de France'', BnF, MS fr. 2813, folio 265v (c.1375×c.1380)]]
By September 1266, Louis IX had decided to take the cross once more, to lead what he hoped would be an international effort.  He always hoped to set out again on a Crusade, but the needs of France were pressing. The next year, weary and ill, Louis felt able to prepare for his second Crusade and he began making the necessary arrangements, collecting the funds needed. At the [[Feast of the Annunciation]] and before the relics housed in the [[Sainte-Chapelle|Sainte Chapelle]], Louis IX and most of the great nobles of France once again took the cross. The date was 25 March 1267.{{sfn|Strayer|1969|pp=508–518|loc=The Crusade of Louis IX to Tunis}}

A second ceremony took place on 5 June 1267 before a papal legate in [[Notre-Dame de Paris]]. Louis' son-in-law, [[Theobald II of Navarre]], who had also taken the cross, was also present. The response was less enthusiastic than to his calling of the Seventh Crusade in 1248, although its unpopularity may have been exaggerated by his chronicler [[Jean de Joinville]], who was personally opposed to the venture. Unlike Louis' first Crusade which was documented extensively by Joinville, the primary chronicler of his second Crusade was [[Primat of Saint-Denis]]. The ''[[Templar of Tyre|Gestes des Chiprois]]'' and works by [[Guillaume de Nangis]], [[Matthew Paris]], [[Fidentius of Padua]] and [[Al-Maqrizi|al-Makrizi]] also form the basis of the history of the expedition.{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=207–212|loc=The Second Crusade of Louis}}

===The Crusade of 1267===
The [[Crusade of 1267]] was a military expedition from the [[Upper Rhine]] region to the Holy Land. It was one of several minor crusades of the 1260s that resulted from a period of Papally-sponsored crusade preaching of unprecedented intensity. After Clement IV issued his bull, he ordered the German bishops, Dominicans, and Franciscans to preach the cross. The response was poor except in those regions bordering France. In the Upper Rhine however, the Crusade was preached with considerable success, resulting in several hundred Crusaders taking the cross by early 1267. The Crusaders departed from Basel during Lent 1267, under the leadership of two ministerial knights of the bishop of Basel and traveling by sea to Acre. Several of the Crusaders were able to visit the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, but little else is known of their activity in the Holy Land; it is probable that the Germans held off from any significant military activity in expectation of the arrival of the expeditions of Louis IX of France and Edward I of England. The majority appear to have returned to Germany by 1270.<ref>Bleck, Reinhard, “[https://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?pid=bzg-002%3A1987%3A87%3A%3A323 Ein oberrheinischer Palästina-Kreuzzug 1267]” Basler Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Altertumskunde 87 (1987), pp. 5–27.</ref>
[[File:Psitticher knight.png|thumb|upright|A knight of the [[Crusade of 1267]]]]

===The Crusade of the Infants of Aragon, 1269===
{{main|Catalan Crusade}}
The Mongol Ilkhan Abaqa had corresponded with James I of Aragon in early 1267, inviting him to join forces against the Mamluks. James had sent an ambassador to Abaqa in the person of Jayme Alaric de Perpignan, who returned with a Mongol embassy. Clement IV and [[Alfonso X of Castile]] tried to dissuade James from a military mission to the Holy Land, regarding him as having low moral character. However, Clement IV died in November 1268 and it was almost three years until Gregory X became the new pope, and the king of Castile had little influence in Aragon. James, who had just completed the [[Conquest of Murcia (1265–66)|conquest of Murcia]], began collecting funds for a crusade.{{sfn|Chaytor|1933|pp=90–96|loc=The Crusade of James I of Aragon}} On 1 September 1269, he sailed east from Barcelona with a powerful squadron. Immediately running into a storm. The king and most of his fleet returned home. Only a small squadron under two of the king's illegitimate sons, [[Pedro Fernández de Híjar|Pedro Fernández]] and [[Fernando Sánchez de Castro|Fernán Sánchez]], continued the journey. They arrived at Acre at the end of December, shortly after Baibars had broken the truce, appearing at Acre with a large force. The Aragonese immediately wanted to attack the enemy, but were restrained by the Templars and Hospitallers. The Christian forces were diminished. Geoffrey of Sargines had died in April 1269 and was replaced by [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem#Seneschals|Robert of Cresque]]. His French regiment, now commanded by [[Olivier de Termes]], was deployed on a raid beyond Montfort. The Acrean forces caught sight of the Muslim forces as they were returning. Olivier de Termes wished to slip unobserved back into Acre, but Robert of Cresque insisted on an attack. They fell into the ambush laid for them by Baibars, and few of them survived. The troops inside Acre wanted to go to their rescue, but the Aragonese restrained them. Soon afterwards they returned to Aragon, having achieved nothing.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=330–331|loc=The Crusades of the Infants of Aragon}}

===Charles I of Anjou===

The forces of [[Manfred, King of Sicily|Manfred of Sicily]] were defeated at Benevento by [[Charles I of Anjou]] in 1266 and Manfred himself, refusing to flee, was killed in battle. Charles was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last. Clement IV censured Charles for his methods of administration, regarding him as an arrogant and obstinate. Nevertheless, Charles was asked to help oust the [[Ghibellines]] from Florence, but his expansionism towards Tuscany alarmed the pope. Clement forced Charles to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany within three years. Charles pledged that he would assist [[Baldwin II, Latin Emperor|Baldwin II of Courtenay]] in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, in exchange for one third of the conquered lands.<ref>Abulafia, David, “[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304418199000123 Charles of Anjou Reassessed],” Journal of Medieval History 26 (2000), 93–114.</ref>

[[File:Enthauptung Konradins.jpg|thumb|alt=A young man who holds a sword above his head stands by an other young man who is kneeling.|[[Conradin]] is executed in Naples, 1268.]]

Charles returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of [[Poggibonsi]], but it did not fall until the end of November 1267.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=101|loc=The fortress of Poggibonsi}} Some of Manfred's supporters had fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade the 15-year-old [[Conradin]] to assert his hereditary right to Sicily. Conradin accepted their proposal and [[Frederick of Castile]], a supporter of Manfred, was allowed by [[Muhammad I al-Mustansir]], the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsid caliph]] of [[Ifriqiya|Ifiqiya]] (modern Tunisia), to invade Sicily from North Africa. At the [[Battle of Tagliacozzo]] on 23 August 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but, in the end, his army was routed. On 29 October 1268, Conradin and his ally [[Frederick I, Margrave of Baden|Frederick of Baden]] were beheaded.<ref>James Francis Loughlin (1908). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Clement IV|Pope Clement IV]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''4.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> Frederick of Castile and his forces were allowed to escape to Tunis rather than being imprisoned. There they served the Tunisians in fighting against Louis' Crusaders in 1270.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=326–327|loc=Hugh, King of Cyprus and Jerusalem}}
===The preparation for the Crusade===
Louis IX never abandoned the idea of the liberation of Jerusalem, but at some point he decided to begin his new Crusade with a military campaign against Tunis. According to his confessor, [[Geoffrey of Beaulieu]], Louis was convinced that Muhammad I al-Mustansir was ready to convert to Christianity. The 13th-century historian [[Saba Malaspina]] believed that Charles had persuaded Louis to attack Tunis because he wanted to secure the payment of the tribute that their rulers had paid to former Sicilian monarchs. The precise motivation behind the decision is unknown, but it is believed that Louis made the choice as early as 1268.{{sfn|Strayer|1969|pp=512–513|loc=Louis' decision to attack Tunis}}

The Crusade was set to sail in early summer 1270 in ships of Genoese (19 vessels) and Marseillois (20 vessels) origin. Louis' initial plan was to descend on the coast of Outremer by way of Cyprus. However, the final plan was developed in 1269, wherein the fleet would first descend on Tunis. While Louis had limited knowledge of Africa, this objective was the only one the met the religious needs of Louis and political aims of Charles. Financing was, as usual, a challenge. Because of the lack of enthusiasm for the expedition, Louis needed to bear much of the burden. Clement IV had also ceded a tenth of the church's income in Navarre to [[Theobald II of Navarre]] to support the Crusade. The prior of [[Roncesvalles]] and the dean of [[Tudela, Navarre|Tudela]] were to oversee the collection of the tenth. The preaching of the Crusade in Navarre was primarily undertaken by the Franciscans and Dominicans of [[Pamplona]].{{sfn|Cazel|1969|pp=116–149|loc=Financing the Crusades}}

===Campaign and the death of Louis IX===

On 2 July 1270, Louis' host finally embarked from [[Aigues-Mortes]].{{sfn|Lower|2018|pp=100–122|loc=The Crusade Begins}} The fleet was led by [[Florent de Varennes]], who was the first [[Admiral of France]], appointed in 1269. They sailed with a large, well-organized fleet, with the king stating:

{{blockquote|text="Déjà vieux, j'entreprends le voyage d'outremer. Je sacrifie pour Dieu richesse, honneurs, plaisirs... J'ai voulu vous donner ce dernier exemple et j'espère que vous le suivrez si les circonstances le commandent..."<ref>[http://www.netmarine.net/tradi/celebres/varennes/index.htm Florent de Varennes]. Net-Marine</ref>}}
Translated, Louis told his troops that: "Already old, I begin the overseas journey. I sacrifice to God wealth, honor, pleasure. I wanted to give you this last example and I hope you will follow it if circumstances dictate."
[[File:LouisIX Eighth Crusade..jpg|thumb|200px|Louis IX of France leading the Eighth Crusade]]
Accompanying Louis were his brother [[Alphonse, Count of Poitiers|Alphonse of Poitiers]] and his wife [[Joan, Countess of Toulouse|Joan of Toulouse]]. Also traveling with the king were his three surviving sons, [[Philip III of France]] (with his wife [[Isabella of Aragon, Queen of France|Isabella of Aragon]]), [[John Tristan, Count of Valois|John Tristran]] and [[Peter I, Count of Alençon|Peter I of Alençon]], and his nephew [[Robert II, Count of Artois|Robert II of Artois]]. Also participating were [[Robert III, Count of Flanders|Robert III of Flanders]], [[John I, Duke of Brittany|John I of Brittany]] and [[Hugh XII of Lusignan|Hugh XII de Lusignan]], all sons of veterans of the previous Crusade, as well as [[Guy II, Count of Saint-Pol|Guy III of Saint-Pol]], [[John II, Count of Soissons|John II of Soissons]] and [[Raoul de Soissons]].

The sailing was at least a month late. This meant that he must contend with the heat in Tunisia as well as the prospect of bad weather at sea on the second leg of the expedition, that to the Holy Land. The army was smaller than that of the Seventh Crusade. Louis' own household included 347 knights, and the total garrison was estimated at 10,000. A second fleet under Louis' son-in-law [[Theobald II of Navarre|Theobald II]] sailed from Marseille accompanied by his wife [[Isabella of France, Queen of Navarre|Isabella of France]], Louis' daughter.{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=207–212|loc=The Second Crusade of Louis}}

The first part of the journey was hectic. They stopped in Sardinia. The king sent Florent ahead as a scout to meet with the Sards. As their boats were Genoan, they were unwelcome. The French and Navarrene fleets joined up at [[Cagliari]], on the southern coast of Sardinia. Here the decision to attack Tunis was announced, causing consternation among the troops as they were told they were going to Jerusalem. The high regard they had for the king reassured them.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=290–292|loc=Louis's Last Crusade}}

After a week at Cagliari, the force was ready and departed, quickly landing at [[Carthage]] on 18 July 1270 without serious opposition. The king sent Florent with a few men to reconnoitre the land. He found an empty harbour, with only a few Muslim and Genoan merchant ships present. The royal council was divided as to a strategy, with some thinking it was a trap, while others wanted to take advantage of the situation and disembark. The latter course was taken, and on 21 July the tower of [[La Goulette]] was seized and the army settled in the plain of Carthage. The Genoan sailors captured the fortress and, slaughtering the inhabitants, using it as their base of operations. Both sides played a waiting game, as Louis did not want to repeat his mistakes made in Egypt in 1250. He would not risk a major battle until Charles arrived. The sultan was safe behind the walls of his fortress and did not wish to engage the Franks in the open, limiting his actions to ones of harassment.{{sfn|Strayer|1969|pp=513–515|loc=Louis' Crusade to Tunis}}

The Tunisian heat, and lack of sanitation and fresh food were to doom the expedition. The Crusading force was stricken with disease, likely dysentery, with many dying. Louis IX was given last rites by Geoffrey of Beaulieu and uttered his last words, ''Domine in manus tuas animam meam commendavi''. The king of France and leader of the Crusade died in penitence on a bed of ashes on 25 August. Philip III was the new king, but his coronation was delayed for a year.{{sfn|Archer|1904|pp=402–403|loc=Death of St. Louis}} As the king's death was being announced, the fleet of Charles I arrived at Tunis. After a few inconsequential skirmishes, Charles sued for peace. Muhammad I al-Mustansir, with his army similarly afflicted, was of a like mind.{{sfn|Strayer|1969|pp=513–515|loc=Louis' Crusade to Tunis}}
[[File:Roi de France Louis IX en mer vers Tunis.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Florent de Varennes]] with his shield ''Gules a Cross Or'' en route to Tunis]]
John II of Soissons and Raoul de Soissons died either in Tunisia or shortly after returning to France. Dying in Tunisia were [[Alfonso of Brienne]], son of [[John of Brienne]] and a squire in the Seventh Crusade. Others, including [[Olivier de Termes]], [[Raoul II of Clermont]], [[Jean d'Eppe]], [[Geoffrey de Geneville, 1st Baron Geneville|Geoffrey de Geneville]] and [[John I, Duke of Brittany|John I of Brittany]] survived. Of the French marshals, [[Lancelot de Saint-Maard]] died, while both [[Raoul II Sores]], and [[Simon de Melun]] survived. Of the contingent from the British Isles, Scottish nobles [[David Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl]], leader of the Scottish contingent, and Sir David de Lindsay, Lord of Byres, died in Tunis, while others such as [[Adam of Kilconquhar]] and [[Alexander de Baliol]] survived to fight the next year with Prince Edward.<ref>Bruce Beebe, [https://academic.oup.com/histres/article-abstract/48/118/127/5670039 The English Baronage and the Crusade of 1270]. Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, Volume 48, Issue 118, November 1975. pp. 127–148.</ref>

===Treaty of Tunis===
The [[Treaty of Tunis]] was signed on 1 November 1270 by Philip III of France, Charles I of Anjou and Theobald II of Navarre for the Latin Christians and Muhammad I al-Mustansir for Tunis. The treaty guaranteed a truce between the two armies. In this agreement, the Christians gained free trade with Tunis, and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed. Baibars cancelled his plan to send Egyptian troops to fight the Franks in Tunis. The treaty was quite beneficial to Charles, who received one-third of a war indemnity from the Tunisians, and was promised that Hohenstaufen refugees in the sultanate would be expelled. The Crusaders left shortly thereafter and the Eighth Crusade was over.{{sfn|Lower|2018|pp=123–143|loc=The Peace of Tunis}}

===Philip III of France===
As Count of Orléans, Philip III of France accompanied his father to Tunis. Louis IX had entrusted the kingdom to [[Matthew of Vendôme (abbot)|Mathieu de Vendôme]] and [[Simon II of Clermont]], to whom he had also given the royal seal. The epidemic that took Louis spared neither Philip nor his family. His brother John Tristan died first, on 3 August, and on 25 August the king died. To prevent putrefaction of his remains, it was decided to carry out ''[[mos Teutonicus]]'', the process of rendering the flesh from the bones so as to make transporting the remains feasible.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip III., king of France|Philip III, King of France]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''21''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 381.</ref>

Philip III, only 25 years old and stricken with disease, was proclaimed king in Tunisia. He was party to the treaty between the kings of France, Sicily and Navarre and the caliph of Tunis. Other deaths followed this debacle. In December 1270, Philip's brother-in-law, Theobald II of Navarre, died. He was followed in February by Philip's wife, [[Isabella of Aragon, Queen of France|Isabella]], who fell off her horse while pregnant with their fifth child. In April, Theobald's widow and Philip's sister [[Isabella of France, Queen of Navarre|Isabella]] also died. Philip III arrived in Paris on 21 May 1271, and paid tribute to the deceased. The next day the funeral of his father was held. The new sovereign was crowned king of France in Reims on 15 August 1271.{{sfn|Kitchin|1892|pp=358–367|loc=Philip III, A.D. 1270–1285}}