Editing Cimmerians (section)

====On the Iranian Plateau====
The eastern group of Cimmerians would remain on the northwestern Iranian plateau, where they were initially active in Mannai before later moving southwards into [[Media (region)|Media]].<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|p=86}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000a|p=82}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000a|p=92}}|{{harvnb|Kõiv|2022|p=264}}}}</ref>

=====In Mannai=====
======Scythian expansion into West Asia======
After having settled into Ciscaucasia, the Scythians became the second wave of steppe nomads to expand southwards from there, following the western shore of the [[Caspian Sea]]{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=93}} and bypassing the Caucasus Mountains to the east through the [[Derbent#History|Caspian Gates]],<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=8}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=129}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=131}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=52}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=19}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000a|p=83}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=60}}}}</ref> with the Scythians first arriving in Transcaucasia around {{c.|700 BC}},{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}} after which they consequently became active in West Asia.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=96}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}}}</ref> This Scythian expansion into West Asia, nonetheless, never lost contact with the core Scythian kingdom located in the Ciscaucasian Steppe and was merely an extension of it, as was the concurrently occurring westward Scythian expansion into the Pontic Steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

Once they had finally crossed into West Asia, the Scythians settled in eastern Transcaucasia and the northwest Iranian plateau,<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=19}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=23}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=62}}}}</ref> between the middle course of the [[Kura (South Caucasus river)|Cyrus]] and [[Aras (river)|Araxes]] rivers before expanding into the regions corresponding to present-day [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Gəncə]], [[Mingachevir|Mingəçevir]] and the [[Mughan plain|Muğan plain]]{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=100}} in the steppes of what is presently Azerbaijan, which became their centre operations until {{c.|600 BC}},{{sfn|Sulimirski|1954|p=282}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}} and this part of Transcaucasia settled by the Scythians consequently became known in the Akkadian sources from Mesopotamia as {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|māt Iškuzaya}} ({{lang|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀}}}}, {{lit|land of the Scythians}}) after them.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=62}}

The arrival of the Scythians in West Asia about 40 years after that of the Cimmerians suggests that there is no available evidence to the later Graeco-Roman account of the Cimmerians crossing the Caucasus and moving south into West Asia under pressure from the Scythians migrating into their territories.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=83}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=96}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=60}}

======Attacks against the Neo-Assyrian Empire======
[[File:Kimerian.jpg|thumb|300px|An Assyrian relief depicting Cimmerian mounted warriors]]
With the Cimmerian victory on Urartu and Sargon II's successful campaign there in 714 BC having eliminated it as a threat against the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mannai had ceased being useful as a buffer zone for Neo-Assyrian power, while the Mannaeans themselves saw the Neo-Assyrian imperial demands as a now unneeded burden. Therefore, the Mannaean king [[Aḫšēri]] ({{reign|{{c.|675}}|{{c.|650 BC}}}}) welcomed the Cimmerians and the Scythians as useful allies who could offer both protection and favourable new opportunities to his kingdom, which in turn allowed him to become an opponent of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with him subsequently remaining an enemy of Sennacherib and his successors Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=747}}

The first ever recorded mention of the Scythians is from the records of the Neo-Assyrian Empire{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}} of {{c.|680 BC}}, which detail the first Scythian activities in West Asia and refer to the first recorded Scythian king, [[Išpakāya]], as an ally of the [[Mannaea]]ns.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=8}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=131}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=101}}|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|p=79}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=68}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref>

Around this time, Aḫšēri was hindering operations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire between its own territory and Mannai,{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748}} while the Scythians were recorded by the Neo-Assyrians along with the eastern Cimmerians, Mannaeans and Urartians as possibly menacing communication between the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its vassal of [[Ḫubuškia]], with messengers travelling between the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Hubuskia being at risk of being captured by hostile Cimmerian, Mannaean, Scythian or Urartian forces.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=87}}|{{harvnb|Bouzek|2001|p=40}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=61}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=747–748}}|{{harvnb|Kõiv|2022|p=264}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref> Neo-Assyrian records also referred to these joint Cimmerian-Scythian forces, along with the Medes and Mannaeans, as a possible threat against the collection of tribute from Media.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|p=87}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=69}}|{{harvnb|Kõiv|2022|p=264}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|p=747}}}}</ref>

During these attacks, the Scythians, along with the eastern Cimmerians who were located on the border of Mannai,{{sfn|Barnett|1982|p=358}}{{sfn|Tokhtas’ev|1991}} were able to reach far beyond the core territories of the Iranian Plateau and attack the Neo-Assyrian provinces of [[Parsua|Parsuwaš]] and [[Bīt-Ḫambān]] and even until as far as Yašuḫ, Šamaš-naṣir and [[Zamua|Zamuā]] in the valley of the Diyala river.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=85–87}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=747–748}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref> One Scytho-Cimmerian attack which had invaded Ḫubuškia from Mannai was even able to threaten the core Neo-Assyrian territories by passing through [[Qaladiza|Anisus]] and [[Ranya|Ḫarrāniya]] on the [[Lower Zab]] river and sack the small city of Milqiya near [[Erbil|Arbaʾil]], close the capital cities of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, where they destroyed the {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|Bīt-Akītī}} (House of the New Year Festival) of this city, which later had to be rebuilt by Esarhaddon.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=87}}{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748-749}} These attacks into their heartlands shocked the Assyrians, who sought to know if they were to face more such invasions through divination.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748}}

Meanwhile, Mannai, which had been able to grow in power under Aḫšēri, possibly thanks to its adaptation and incorporation of steppe nomad fighting technologies borrowed from its Cimmerian and Scythian allies,{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=71}} was able to capture the territories including the fortresses of Šarru-iqbi and Dūr-Illil from the Neo-Assyrian Empire and retain them until the {{c.|650s BC}}.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=102-103}}{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=747}}

Under Argišti II, Urartu attempted to restore its power by expanding to the east towards the region of [[Sabalan|Mount Sabalan]], possibly to relieve the pressure on the trade routes across the Iranian Plateau and the steppes from the Scythians, Cimmerians, and Medes.{{sfn|Barnett|1982|p=357}} Urartu remained a major power under Argišti II's successor [[Rusa II]] ({{reign|{{c.|685}}|{{c.|645 BC}}}}), the latter of whom carried out major fortification construction projects around [[Lake Van]], such as at [[Bastam Citadel|Rusāipatari]], and at [[Teishebaini|Teišebaini]] near what is presently [[Yerevan]];{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=67}} other fortifications built by Rusa II were Qale Bordjy and Qale Sangar north of [[Lake Urmia]], as well as the fortresses of Pir Chavush, Qale Gavur and Qiz Qale around the administrative centre of [[Haftevan|Haftavan Tepe]] to the northwest of the Lake, all intended to monitor the activities of the allied forces of the Scythians, Mannaeans and Medes.{{sfn|Barnett|1982|p=360-361}}

These allied forces of the Cimmerians, Mannaeans and Scythians were defeated some time between {{c.|680}} and {{c.|677 BC}} by Sennacherib's son [[Esarhaddon]] ({{reign|681|669 BC}}), who had succeeded him as the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=78-79}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=68}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} and carried out a retaliatory campaign which reached deep into Median territory until [[Mount Damavand|Mount Bikni]] and the country of Patušarra (Patischoria) on the limits of the [[Dasht-e Kavir|Great Salt Desert]].{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103-104}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} Išpakāya was killed in battle against Esarhaddon's forces during this campaign, and he was succeeded as king of the Scythians by [[Bartatua]],<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=8}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1999|p=517}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993b|pp=326–327}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|p=749}}}}</ref> with whom Esarhaddon might have immediately initiated negotiations.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103}}

Since the Cimmerians had left their Ciscausian homelands and moved into West Asia to seek booty, they had no interest in the local affairs of the West Asian states and therefore fought for whoever was capable of paying them the most: therefore Esarhaddon took advantage of this and, at some point before {{c.|675 BC}}, he started secret negotiations with the eastern Cimmerians, who confirmed to the Assyrians that they would remain neutral and promised not to interfere when Esarhaddon invaded Mannai again in {{c.|675 BC}}. Nonetheless, since the Cimmerians were distant foreigners with a very different culture, and therefore did not fear the Mesopotamian gods, Esarhaddon's diviner and advisor Bēl-ušēzib referred to these eastern Cimmerians instead of the Scythians as possible allies of the Mannaeans and advised Esarhaddon to spy on both them and the Mannaeans.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=91}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=76–77}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|p=751}}}}</ref>

This second Assyrian invasion of Mannai however met little success because the Cimmerians with whom Esarhaddon had negotiated had deceived him by accepting his offer only to attack his invasion force,{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=751}} and the relations between Mannai and the Neo-Assyrian Empire remained hostile while the Cimmerians remained allied to Mannai{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=80}} until the period lasting from 671 to 657 BC.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=88-89}} As a result of this failure, the Neo-Assyrian Empire resigned itself to waiting until the Cimmerians were no longer a threat before mounting any further expedition in Mannai.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=751}}

Around this same time, the Indaraeans were also active around the northern boundary of Elam,{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=193}} and some of them might have moved to the southern Iranian Plateau, where they possibly introduced Bronze articles from the [[Koban culture]] into the [[Luristan bronze]] culture.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560}}

=====Alliance with the Medes=====
The Neo-Assyrian Empire did not remain on a defensive footing in response to the activities of the allied Cimmerian, Mannaean and Scythian forces, and it soon undertook diplomatic initiatives to separate Aḫšēri from his allies: by 672 BC, the Scythians had become the allies of the Neo-Assyrian Empire after Išpakāya's successor, [[Bartatua]], had asked for the hand of the eldest daughter of Esarhaddon, the Neo-Assyrian princess [[Šērūʾa-ēṭirat]], and promised to form an alliance treaty with the Neo-Assyrian Empire in an act of careful diplomacy.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1954|p=294}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=131}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=359}}|{{harvnb|Grayson|1991a|p=129}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1999|p=509}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|pp=19–21}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2006|p=148}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=92–93}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}}|{{harvnb|Dugaw|Lipschits|Stiebel|2020|p=66}}|{{harvnb|Kõiv|2022|p=264}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=749–750}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref>

The marriage between Bartatua and the Šērūʾa-ēṭirat likely took place,<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1954|p=294}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1999|p=509}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|pp=19–21}}}}</ref> in consequence of which{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} the Scythians ceased to be referred to as an enemy force in the Neo-Assyrian records{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=92-93}} and the alliance between the Scythian kingdom and the Neo-Assyrian Empire was concluded,{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=8-9}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} following which the Scythian kingdom therefore remained on friendly terms with the Neo-Assyrian Empire and maintained peaceful relations with it.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=33}}

The eastern Cimmerians meanwhile remained hostile to Assyria,{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=94}} and, along with the Medes, were the allies of Ellipi against an invasion by the Neo-Assyrian Empire between {{c.|672}} and {{c.|669 BC}}.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=90-91}} The eastern Cimmerians also attacked the Assyrian province of [[Shupria|Šubria]] during this time.{{sfn|Barnett|1982|p=358}}{{sfn|Tokhtas’ev|1991}}

It consequently became more difficult for the Neo-Assyrian Empire to control the Median city-states and the various polities in the [[Zagros Mountains]] at this point.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=68}} Soon, the Median chieftains [[Kaštaritu]] of [[Kār-Kaššî]] and Dusanni of Šaparda became powerful enough that their respective polities were seen by the Neo-Assyrian Empire as major forces in Media.{{sfn|Adalı|2023|p=214}} And when Kaštaritu rebelled against the Neo-Assyrian Empire and founded the first independent kingdom of the Medes after successfully liberating them from Neo-Assyrian overlordship in {{c.|671}} to {{c.|669 BC}},{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=83-84}} the eastern Cimmerians were allied to him.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=105}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|p=85}}}}</ref>

Around {{c.|669 BC}}, the eastern Cimmerians experienced a defeat by the Neo-Assyrian army and were forced to retreat into their own territory,{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=85}} and they were still on the territory of Mannai by {{c.|667 BC}}.{{sfn|Tokhtas’ev|1991}}

However, some time in the late 660s or early 650s BC, the eastern Cimmerians left the Iranian Plateau and retreated to the west into Anatolia to join the western Cimmerians operating there: since Aḫšēri had depended on his alliance with the Cimmerians and Scythians to protect his kingdom from attacks by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, their departure provided Esarhaddon's successor to the Neo-Assyrian kingship, [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{reign|669|631 BC}}), with the opportunity to attack Mannai and recover some of the settlements which the Mannaeans had previously captured. And although Aḫšēri himself was able to withstand the Neo-Assyrian invasion, he had depended on the Cimmerians to suppress internal opposition to his rule, and their absence weakened him enough that he was soon deposed and killed by a popular rebellion which his son Uallî repressed before ascending to the throne of Mannai and submitting to the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=752-754}}

Thus, Ashurbanipal's situation improved once he was finally re-establish Neo-Assyrian overlordship over Mannai thanks to the retreat of the Cimmerians from the Iranian Plateau.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=757}}