Editing Catherine the Great (section)

=== Education ===
[[File:Ekaterina II and Lomonosov.jpg|thumb|180px|Catherine visits Russian scientist [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] ]]
Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.<ref>{{harvnb|Max|2006|pp=19–24}}</ref> She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roucek |first=Joseph S. |date=1958 |title=Education in Czarist Russia |journal=History of Education Journal |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=37–45 |jstor=3692580}}</ref>

[[File:E. Vorontsova-Dashkova by Dm. Levitsky (1784, Hillwood).jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|[[Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova]], the closest female friend of Empress Catherine and a major figure of the Russian Enlightenment]]

Catherine appointed [[Ivan Betskoy]] as her advisor on educational matters.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|pp=369–95}}</ref> Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British pedagogical pioneers, particularly the Rev. [[Daniel Dumaresq]] and Dr John Brown.{{sfn|Hans|1961}} In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=374}}</ref> However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission's problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state's control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.{{sfn|Hans|1961|p=233}} This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.<ref>{{harvnb|Dixon|2009|p=130}}</ref> The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.<ref>Catherine Evtuhov, ''A History of Russia: Peoples, Legends, Events, Forces'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).{{ISBN?}}{{Page needed|date=September 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Moscow Orphanage asv2018-01.jpg|thumb|The [[Moscow Orphanage]]]]
[[File:Galaktionov Smolny institute 1823.jpg|thumb|The [[Smolny Institute]], the first Russian [[Institute for Noble Maidens]] and the first European state higher education institution for women]]
Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of [[John Locke]], and founded the famous [[Smolny Institute]] in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Max|2006|p=20}}</ref> The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute's philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.<ref>{{harvnb|Max|2006|p=21}}</ref>

From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=379}}</ref> However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the ''guberniya''—a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor—on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=380}}</ref>

By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=383}}</ref> One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician, [[Franz Aepinus]]. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels.

In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under [[Pyotr Zavadovsky]]. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created.<ref name="Madariaga, Foundation, 385">{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=385}}</ref> The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in ''guberniya'' capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the "Guide to Teachers". This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.<ref name="Madariaga, Foundation, 385" />

Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=391}}</ref> Two years after the implementation of Catherine's program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their teaching methods. Yet by the end of Catherine's reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.<ref>{{harvnb|Madariaga|1979|p=394}}</ref>