Editing Cat (section)

== Behavior ==
{{See also|Cat behavior}}
Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Spatio-temporal Sharing between the European Wildcat, the Domestic Cat and their Hybrids |last1=Germain |first1=E. |last2=Benhamou |first2=S. |last3=Poulle |first3=M.-L. |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=2008 |volume=276 |issue=2 |pages=195–203 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their homes, but they can range a radius of many hundreds of meters. They establish [[Territory (animal)|territories]] that vary considerably in size, in one study ranging {{cvt|7|-|28|ha|acre}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barratt |first=D. G. |title=Home Range Size, Habitat Utilisation and Movement Patterns of Suburban and Farm Cats ''Felis catus'' |journal=Ecography |year=1997 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.1997.tb00371.x |jstor=3682838 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=271–280|bibcode=1997Ecogr..20..271B }}</ref> The timing of cats' activity is quite flexible and varied; but being low-light predators, they are generally [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]], which means they tend to be more active near dawn and dusk. However, house cats' behavior is also influenced by human activity, and they may adapt to their owners' sleeping patterns to some extent.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Circadian rhythms in food intake and activity in domestic cats |last1=Randall |first1=W. |last2=Johnson |first2=R. F. |last3=Randall |first3=S. |last4=Cunningham |first4=J. T. |journal=Behavioral Neuroscience |year=1985 |volume=99 |issue=6 |pmid=3843546 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.99.6.1162 |pages=1162–1175}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ling |first=Thomas |date=2 June 2021 |title=Why do cats sleep so much? |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/why-do-cats-sleep-so-much/ |access-date=3 April 2023 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403180235/https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/why-do-cats-sleep-so-much/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep varies, usually between 12 and 16 hours, with 13 to 14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours. The term "cat nap" for a short rest refers to the cat's tendency to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period. Short periods of [[rapid eye movement sleep]] are often accompanied by muscle twitches, which suggests they are dreaming.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/0166-2236(79)90110-3 |volume=2 |pages=280–282 |last=Jouvet |first=M. |title=What Does a Cat Dream About? |journal=Trends in Neurosciences |year=1979|s2cid=53161799}}</ref>

Behavioral and personality traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Scientific evidence is mixed about the popular belief that those traits are linked to coat colors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Delgado |first1=Mikel M. |last2=Munera |first2=Jacqueline D. |last3=Reevy |first3=Gretchen M. |date=2012-12-01 |title=Human Perceptions of Coat Color as an Indicator of Domestic Cat Personality |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175303712X13479798785779 |journal=Anthrozoös |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=427–440 |doi=10.2752/175303712X13479798785779 |issn=0892-7936}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Udell |first1=Monique |last2=Delgado |first2=Mikel |last3=Ekenstedt |first3=Kari |last4=Shoveller |first4=Anna Kate |last5=Croney |first5=Candace |year=2023 |title=CATastrophic myths part 2: Common misconceptions about the environmental, nutritional, and genetic management of domestic cats and their welfare implications |journal=The Veterinary Journal |volume=300-302 |page=106029 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2023.106029 |pmid=37683762 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=González-Ramírez |first1=Mónica Teresa |last2=Landero-Hernández |first2=René |date=15 April 2022 |title=Cat Coat Color, Personality Traits and the Cat-Owner Relationship Scale: A Study with Cat Owners in Mexico |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=1030 |doi=10.3390/ani12081030 |doi-access=free |pmid=35454276 |pmc=9024431 |issn=2076-2615}}</ref>

=== Sociability ===
The social behavior of the domestic cat ranges from widely dispersed individuals to [[Feral cat colony|feral cat colonies]] that gather around a food source, based on groups of co-operating females.<ref name="Crowell-davis2004">{{Cite journal |title=Social Organization in the Cat: A Modern Understanding |last1=Crowell-Davis |first1=S. L. |last2=Curtis |first2=T. M. |last3=Knowles |first3=R. J. |year=2004 |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=19–28 |doi=10.1016/j.jfms.2003.09.013 |pmid=15123163 |pmc=10822437 |s2cid=25719922 |url=http://zoopsy.free.fr/veille_biblio/social_organization_cat_2004.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110720231305/http://zoopsy.free.fr/veille_biblio/social_organization_cat_2004.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Liberg_al2014">{{Cite book |last1=Liberg |first1=O. |last2=Sandell |first2=M. |last3=Pontier |first3=D. |last4=Natoli |first4=E. |chapter=Density, spatial organisation and reproductive tactics in the domestic cat and other felids |title=The domestic cat: the biology of its behaviour |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2000 |edition=2nd |isbn=9780521636483 |editor1-last=Turner |editor1-first=D. C. |editor2-last=Bateson |editor2-first=P. |pages=119–147 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=GgUwg6gU7n4C&pg=PA119 |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210331062218/https://books.google.com/books?id=GgUwg6gU7n4C&pg=PA119 |url-status=live}}</ref> Within such groups, one cat is usually dominant over the others.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Patterns of social interaction in cats (''Felis domestica'') |last1=Baron |first1=A. |last2=Stewart |first2=C. N. |last3=Warren |first3=J. M. |journal=Behaviour |date=1 January 1957 |doi=10.1163/156853956X00084 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=56–66 |jstor=4532869}}</ref> Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, which are about 10 times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females' territories. These territories are marked by [[urine spraying]], rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands, and by [[defecation]].<ref name="Sommerville">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00102-6 |volume=57 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |last=Sommerville |first=B. A. |title=Olfactory Awareness |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |year=1998}}</ref> Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually chase away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and [[growling]], and, if that does not work, by short and violent, noisy attacks. Although cats do not have a social survival strategy or [[herd behavior]], they always hunt alone.<ref name="Bradshaw">{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=J. W. |last2=Goodwin |first2=D. |last3=Legrand-Defrétin |first3=V. |last4=Nott |first4=H. M. |year=1996 |title=Food selection by the domestic cat, an obligate carnivore |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=205–209 |doi=10.1016/0300-9629(95)02133-7 |pmid=8759144}}</ref>

Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. [[Ethology|Ethologically]], a cat's human keeper functions as a mother surrogate.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA518 |last1=Mills |first1=D. S. |last2=Marchant-Forde |first2=J. |date=2010 |title=Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour and Welfare |page=518 |isbn=9780851997247 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407004417/https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA518 |archive-date=7 April 2017}}</ref> Adult cats live in a type of extended kittenhood, a form of behavioral [[neoteny]]. Their high-pitched sounds may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly difficult for humans to ignore.<ref name="McComb 2009">{{Cite journal |last1=McComb |first1=K. |last2=Taylor |first2=A. M. |last3=Wilson |first3=C. |last4=Charlton |first4=B. D. |title=The Cry Embedded within the Purr |journal=Current Biology |volume=19 |issue=13 |pages=R507–508 |year=2009 |pmid=19602409 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.033|s2cid=10972076 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009CBio...19.R507M }}</ref> Some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness toward newly arrived kittens, which includes biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.<ref name="Levine 2005">{{Cite journal |title=Intercat aggression in households following the introduction of a new cat |last1=Levine |first1=E. |last2=Perry |first2=P. |last3=Scarlett |first3=J. |last4=Houpt |first4=K. |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |issue=3–4 |year=2005 |pages=325–336 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2004.07.006 |volume=90 |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/jcha/330_cats_introducing.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090326225932/http://faculty.washington.edu/jcha/330_cats_introducing.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref>

[[Redirected aggression]] is a common form of aggression which can occur in multiple cat households. In redirected aggression, there is usually something that agitates the cat: this could be a sight, sound, or another source of stimuli which causes a heightened level of anxiety or arousal. If the cat cannot attack the stimuli, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or directing aggression to the nearest cat, pet, human or other being.<ref name="Horwitz">{{cite news |last1=Horwitz |first1=Debra |title=Cat Behavior Problems - Aggression Redirected |url= https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/cat-behavior-problems-aggression-redirected |access-date=16 June 2022 |publisher=VCA Animal Hospitals |year=2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319184510/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/cat-behavior-problems-aggression-redirected |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Behaviorist">{{cite news |last1=Johnson |first1=Ingrid |title=Redirected Aggression in Cats: Recognition and Treatment Strategies |url= https://iaabc.org/cat/redirected-aggression-in-cats |access-date=16 June 2022 |publisher=International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants |date=17 May 2014 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220307001045/https://iaabc.org/cat/redirected-aggression-in-cats |url-status=live}}</ref>

Domestic cats' [[scent rubbing]] behavior toward humans or other cats is thought to be a feline means of social bonding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soennichsen |first1=S. |last2=Chamove |first2=A. S. |year=2015 |title=Responses of cats to petting by humans |journal=Anthrozoös |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=258–265 |doi=10.2752/089279302786992577|s2cid=144843766}}</ref>

=== Communication ===
{{Main|Cat communication}}
{{Listen image
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| main_image_caption = Vocalizing domestic cat
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| filename = Meow domestic cat.ogg
| title              = A meow
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Domestic cats use many [[Animal communication|vocalizations]] for communication, including [[purr]]ing, [[Trill consonant|trilling]], hissing, growling/snarling, grunting, and several different forms of meowing.<ref name=Moelk1944>{{Cite journal |title=Vocalizing in the House-cat; A Phonetic and Functional Study |last=Moelk |first=M. |journal=The American Journal of Psychology |year=1944 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=184–205 |doi=10.2307/1416947 |jstor=1416947}}</ref> Their [[Cat body language|body language]], including position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body, and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms; a raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicate hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's [[social hierarchy]], with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate ones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cafazzo |first1=S. |last2=Natoli |first2=E. |title=The Social Function of Tail Up in the Domestic Cat (''Felis silvestris catus'') |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=60–66 |year=2009 |pmid=18930121 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2008.09.008 |s2cid=19883549}}</ref> Feral cats are generally silent.<ref name="Jensen">{{Cite book |last=Jensen |first=P. |title=The Ethology of Domestic Animals |series="Modular Text" series |publisher=[[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]] |location=Wallingford, England |date=2009 |isbn=9781845935368}}</ref>{{rp|208}} Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by [[social grooming]], which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.<ref name="Crowell-davis2004" />

[[Purring]] may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signaling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and [[Breastfeeding|nursing]] kittens, who are thought to use it as a care-soliciting signal.<ref name="bradshaw2012"/> Post-nursing cats also often purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted, becoming relaxed,<ref name="BruelKjaer">{{cite web |first1=E. |last1=von Muggenthaler |first2=B. |last2=Wright |url=http://www.bksv.com/catspurr |title=Solving the Cat's Purr Mystery Using Accelerometers |work=BKSV |publisher=[[Brüel & Kjær]] |access-date=11 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722131617/http://www.bksv.com/catspurr |archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="IsnareCom">{{cite web |url= http://www.isnare.com/?aid=195293&ca=Pets |title=The Cat's Remarkable Purr |work=ISnare |access-date=6 August 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110713063142/http://www.isnare.com/?aid=195293&ca=Pets |archive-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> or eating. Although purring is popularly interpreted as indicative of pleasure, it has been recorded in a wide variety of circumstances, most of which involve physical contact between the cat and another, presumably trusted individual.<ref name="bradshaw2012"/> Some cats have been observed to purr continuously when chronically ill or in apparent pain.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaver |first1=Bonnie V. G. |title=Feline behavior : a guide for veterinarians |date=2003 |publisher=Saunders |location=St. Louis, Missouri |isbn=9780721694986 |edition=2nd}}</ref>

The exact mechanism by which cats purr has long been elusive, but it has been proposed that purring is generated via a series of sudden build-ups and releases of pressure as the [[glottis]] is opened and closed, which causes the [[vocal folds]] to separate forcefully. The [[Larynx|laryngeal muscles]] in control of the glottis are thought to be driven by a [[neural oscillation|neural oscillator]] which generates a cycle of contraction and release every 30–40 [[millisecond]]s (giving a frequency of 33 to 25&nbsp;Hz).<ref name="bradshaw2012">{{cite book |last=Bradshaw |first=John W. S. |title=The Behaviour of the Domestic Cat |date=2012 |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |isbn=9781780641201 |pages=71–72 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CMQdnrR0xEsC |access-date=6 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Remmers |first1=J. E. |last2=Gautier |first2=H. |title=Neural and mechanical mechanisms of feline purring |journal=Respiration Physiology |year=1972 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=351–361 |doi=10.1016/0034-5687(72)90064-3 |pmid=4644061}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frazer Sissom |first1=D. E. |last2=Rice |first2=D. A. |last3=Peters |first3=G. |title=How cats purr |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=1991 |volume=223 |issue=1 |pages=67–78 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04749.x |s2cid=32350871}}</ref>

Domestic cats observed in rescue facilities have 276 morphologically distinct [[facial expression]]s based on 26 facial movements; each facial expression corresponds to different social functions that are probably influenced by domestication.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=L. |last2=Florkiewicz |first2=B. N. |year=2023 |title=Feline Faces: Unraveling the Social Function of Domestic Cat Facial Signals |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=213 |page=104959 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2023.104959|pmid=37858844 |s2cid=264176390}}</ref> Facial expressions have helped researchers detect pain in cats. The feline [[grimace scale]]'s five criteria—ear position, orbital tightening, muzzle tension, whisker change, and head position—indicated the presence of acute pain in cats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evangelista |first1=M. C. |last2=Watanabe |first2=R. |last3=Leung |first3=V. S. Y. |last4=Monteiro |first4=B. P. |last5=O'Toole |first5=E. |last6=Pang |first6=D. S. J. |last7=Steagall |first7=P. V. |year=2019 |title=Facial expressions of pain in cats: the development and validation of a Feline Grimace Scale |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=19128 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-55693-8 |pmc=6911058 |pmid=31836868|bibcode=2019NatSR...919128E}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Monteiro |first1=B. P |last2=Lee |first2=N. H.Y. |last3=Steagall |first3=P. V. |year=2023 |title=Can cat caregivers reliably assess acute pain in cats using the Feline Grimace Scale? A large bilingual global survey |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1098612X221145499 |doi=10.1177/1098612X221145499 |pmid=36649089|pmc=10812049 }}</ref>

=== Grooming ===
[[File:Cat tongue macro.jpg|thumb|Cat tongue]]
Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean.<ref name="hairballs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Noel |first1=A. C. |last2=Hu |first2=D. L. |title=Cats use hollow papillae to wick saliva into fur |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |year=2018 |volume=115 |issue=49 |pages=12377–12382 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1809544115 |pmid=30455290 |pmc=6298077 |bibcode=2018PNAS..11512377N |doi-access=free}}</ref> The cat's tongue has backward-facing spines about 0.5 millimeter long, called [[lingual papilla]]e, which contain [[keratin]] making them rigid.<ref name="Boshel 1982">{{Cite journal |title=Filiform Papillae of Cat Tongue |last1=Boshel |first1=J. |last2=Wilborn |first2=W. H. |last3=Singh |first3=B. B. |last4=Peter |first4=S. |last5=Stur |first5=M. |s2cid=36216103 |journal=Acta Anatomica |year=1982 |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=97–105 |doi=10.1159/000145583 |pmid=7180385}}</ref> The papillae act like a hairbrush, and some cats, particularly [[Domestic long-haired cat|long-haired cats]], occasionally regurgitate sausage-shaped {{cvt|2|–|3|cm|1}} long [[hairball]]s of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the [[gut (anatomy)|gut]], and regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush.<ref name="hairballs">{{cite web |last=Hadzima |first=E. |title=Everything You Need to Know About Hairballs |year=2016 |url= http://www.dewintonvet.com/everything-you-need-know-about-hairballs/ |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161006104436/http://www.dewintonvet.com/everything-you-need-know-about-hairballs/ |archive-date=6 October 2016 |access-date=23 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Cat intelligence ===
{{Main|Cat intelligence}}
[[File:Cat_opening_door.webm|thumb|300x300px|Cat uses problem-solving skills to open door]]Cat intelligence refers to a cat's ability to solve problems, adapt to its environment, learn new behaviors, and communicate its needs. Structurally, a cat's brain shares similarities with the human brain,<ref name="Gross 20102">{{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Richard |title=Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour |publisher=Hodder Education |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4441-0831-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref> containing around 250 million neurons in the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for complex processing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ananthanarayanan |first1=Rajagopal |title=Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Computing Networking, Storage and Analysis – SC '09 |last2=Esser |first2=Steven K. |last3=Simon |first3=Horst D. |last4=Modha |first4=Dharmendra S. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60558-744-8 |pages=1–12 |chapter=The cat is out of the bag: cortical simulations with 10<sup>9</sup> neurons, 10<sup>13</sup> synapses |doi=10.1145/1654059.1654124 |s2cid=6110450}}</ref> Cats display [[neuroplasticity]] allowing their brains to reorganize based on experiences. They have well-developed memory retaining information for a decade or longer. These memories are often intertwined with emotions, allowing cats to recall both positive and negative experiences associated with specific places.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Smart Are Cats? |url=https://bondvet.com/b/how-smart-are-cats |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Bond Vet |language=en}}</ref> While they excel in [[observational learning]] and problem-solving, studies concludes that they struggle with understanding cause-and-effect relationships in the same way that humans do.<ref>[http://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-applied-sciences/applied-social-sciences/staff/Britta-Osthaus/ B. Osthaus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911145023/http://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-applied-sciences/applied-social-sciences/staff/Britta-Osthaus/|date=11 September 2015}} {{cite news |last=Meikle |first=James |date=16 June 2009 |title=Cats outsmarted in psychologist's test |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/jun/16/psychologist-test-outsmarts-cats |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pallaud |first1=B. |year=1984 |title=Hypotheses on mechanisms underlying observational learning in animals |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=381–394 |doi=10.1016/0376-6357(84)90024-X |pmid=24924084 |s2cid=31226100}}</ref>

Cat [[Animal cognition|intelligence]] study is mostly from consideration of the domesticated cat. Living in urban environments has exposed them to challenges that require adaptive behaviors, contributing to cognitive development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carlstead |first1=Kathy |last2=Brown |first2=Janine L. |last3=Seidensticker |first3=John |year=1993 |title=Behavioral and adrenocortical responses to environmental changes in leopard cats (''Felis bengalensis'') |journal=Zoo Biology |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=321–31 |doi=10.1002/zoo.1430120403 |s2cid=32582485}}</ref> Selective breeding and genetic changes have further influenced their intelligence.<ref name="pmid176001852">{{cite journal |last1=Driscoll |first1=C. A. |last2=Menotti-Raymond |first2=M. |last3=Roca |first3=A. L. |last4=Hupe |first4=K. |last5=Johnson |first5=W. E. |last6=Geffen |first6=E. |last7=Harley |first7=E. H. |last8=Delibes |first8=M. |last9=Pontier |first9=D. |last10=Kitchener |first10=A. C. |last11=Yamaguchi |first11=N. |last12=O'Brien |first12=S. J. |last13=MacDonald |first13=D. W. |display-authors=8 |year=2007 |title=The Near Eastern Origin of Cat Domestication |journal=Science |volume=317 |issue=5837 |pages=519–23 |bibcode=2007Sci...317..519D |doi=10.1126/science.1139518 |pmc=5612713 |pmid=17600185}}</ref><ref name="fabcats.org2">{{cite web |title=Evolution of the cat |url=http://www.fabcats.org/behaviour/understanding/evolution.html |publisher=The Feline Advisory Bureau}}</ref> [[Kitten]]s learn essential survival skills by observing their mothers, while adult cats refine their abilities through [[trial and error]].{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

=== Play ===
{{Main|Cat play and toys}}
[[File:Play fight between cats.webmhd.webm|thumbnail|thumbtime=4|alt=Play fight between kittens, age 14 weeks|Kittens aged 14 weeks use fighting as a form of play.]]
Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and kill prey.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poirier |first1=F. E. |last2=Hussey |first2=L. K. |year=1982 |title=Nonhuman Primate Learning: The Importance of Learning from an Evolutionary Perspective |journal=Anthropology and Education Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=133–148 |doi=10.1525/aeq.1982.13.2.05x1830j |jstor=3216627 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Cats also engage in [[Rough-and-tumble play|play fighting]], both with each other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for cats to practice the skills needed for real combat, and it might also reduce the fear that they associate with launching attacks on other animals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=S. L. |title=Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Perspectives |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521586566 |editor1=Byers, J. A. |pages=45–60 |chapter=Object play by adult animals |access-date=25 October 2020 |editor2=Bekoff, M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jkiTQ8dIIHsC&pg=PA45 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126043154/https://books.google.com/books?id=jkiTQ8dIIHsC&pg=PA45 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=S. L. |year=1998 |title=The Influence of Hunger on Object Play by Adult Domestic Cats |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=58 |issue=1–2 |pages=143–150 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00136-6}}</ref> Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting, cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as small furry toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest. They become [[habituation|habituated]] to a toy they have played with before.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=S. L. |year=2002 |title=Object Play in Adult Domestic Cats: The Roles of Habituation and Disinhibition |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=263–271 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00153-3}}</ref> String is often used as a toy, but if it is eaten, it can become caught at the base of the cat's tongue and then move into the [[intestine]]s, a medical emergency which can cause serious illness, even death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacPhail |first=C. |year=2002 |title=Gastrointestinal obstruction |journal=Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=178–183 |doi=10.1053/svms.2002.36606 |pmid=12587284 |s2cid=24977450}}</ref>

=== Hunting and feeding ===
{{See also|Cat food}}
[[File:Kot z myszą.jpg|thumb|right|A [[deermouse]] is the prey of this domestic cat.]]
The shape and structure of cats' cheeks is insufficient to allow them to take in liquids using suction. Lapping at a rate of four times a second, the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it like a corkscrew, drawing water upward into their mouths.<ref name="Reis 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Reis |first1=P. M. |last2=Jung |first2=S. |last3=Aristoff |first3=J. M. |last4=Stocker |first4=R. |year=2010 |title=How cats lap: Water uptake by ''Felis catus'' |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=330 |issue=6008 |pages=1231–1234 |bibcode=2010Sci...330.1231R |doi=10.1126/science.1195421 |pmid=21071630 |s2cid=1917972 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Kim 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=W. |last2=Bush |first2=J.W.M. |year=2012 |title=Natural drinking strategies |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/80405/2/Bush_Natural%20drinking%20strategies.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics |volume=705 |pages=7–25 |bibcode=2012JFM...705....7K |doi=10.1017/jfm.2012.122 |s2cid=14895835 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307214820/https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/80405/Bush_Natural |archive-date=7 March 2022 |access-date=23 September 2019 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/80405}}</ref>

Feral cats and free-fed house cats consume several small meals in a day. The frequency and size of meals varies between individuals. They select food based on its temperature, smell, and texture; they dislike chilled foods and respond most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids, which are similar to meat. Cats reject novel flavors (a response termed [[neophobia]]) and learn quickly to [[conditioned taste aversion|avoid foods that have tasted unpleasant]] in the past.<ref name="Bradshaw" /><ref name="Zaghini">{{cite journal |last1=Zaghini |first1=G. |last2=Biagi |first2=G. |year=2005 |title=Nutritional peculiarities and diet palatability in the cat |journal=Veterinary Res. Commun. |volume=29 |issue=Supplement 2 |pages=39–44 |doi=10.1007/s11259-005-0009-1 |pmid=16244923 |s2cid=23633719}}</ref> It is also a common misconception that all cats like milk or cream, as they tend to avoid sweet food and milk. Most adult cats are [[lactose intolerant]]; the sugar in milk is not easily digested and may cause soft stools or [[diarrhea]].<ref name="Kienzle 1994">{{cite journal |last=Kienzle |first=E. |year=1994 |title=Blood sugar levels and renal sugar excretion after the intake of high carbohydrate diets in cats |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/124/12_Suppl/2563S.full.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Nutrition |volume=124 |issue=12 Supplement |pages=2563S–2567S |doi=10.1093/jn/124.suppl_12.2563S |pmid=7996238 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903163949/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/124/12_Suppl/2563S.full.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2013}}</ref> Some also develop odd eating habits and like to eat or chew on things such as wool, plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, [[pica (disorder)|pica]], can threaten their health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.<ref name="Bradshaw 1997">{{cite journal |last=Bradshaw |first=J. W. S. |year=1997 |title=Factors affecting pica in the domestic cat |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=52 |issue=3–4 |pages=373–379 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01136-7}}</ref>

Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents,<ref name="Woods">{{cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=M. |last2=McDonald |first2=R. A. |last3=Harris |first3=S. |year=2003 |title=Predation of wildlife by domestic cats ''Felis catus'' in Great Britain |journal=Mammal Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=174–188 |bibcode=2003MamRv..33..174W |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2907.2003.00017.x |s2cid=42095020}}</ref> and are often used as a form of pest control.<ref>{{cite book |last=Slesnick |first=I. L. |url=https://archive.org/details/clonescatschemic00sles/page/n16 |title=Clones, Cats, and Chemicals: Thinking scientifically about controversial issues |date=2004 |publisher=NSTA Press |isbn=9780873552370 |page=9 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=D. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/pestscropswarmer00hill/page/n125 |title=Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and their Control |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781402067372 |edition=First |page=120 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Other common small creatures, such as lizards and snakes, may also become prey.<ref>{{cite web |last=Learn |first=Joshua Rapp |date=17 August 2018 |title=Cats Have A Killer Impact on Reptiles: Experiments in Australia reveal that kitties are catching more than birds |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/cats-kill-reptiles-populations-australia-animals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124225514/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/cats-kill-reptiles-populations-australia-animals |archive-date=24 November 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |work=[[National Geographic Society|NationalGeographic]]}}</ref> Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or [[Ambush predator|waiting in ambush]] until an animal comes close enough to be captured.<ref name="How Cats Evolved to Win the Internet">{{cite news |last=Tucker |first=A. |year=2016 |title=How cats evolved to win the Internet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/16/opinion/sunday/how-cats-evolved-to-win-the-internet.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019204937/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/16/opinion/sunday/how-cats-evolved-to-win-the-internet.html |archive-date=19 October 2016 |access-date=13 November 2016 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> The strategy used depends on available prey, with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively stalk birds.<ref name="Turner 2000">{{cite book |title=The Domestic Cat: The biology of its behaviour |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521636483 |editor-last1=Turner |editor-first1=D. C. |edition=2nd |editor-last2=Bateson |editor-first2=P.}}</ref>{{rp|153}} Domestic cats are a major [[Cat predation on wildlife|predator of wildlife]] in the United States, killing an estimated 1.3 to 4.0&nbsp;billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3&nbsp;billion mammals annually.<ref name="NC012913">{{cite journal |last1=Loss |first1=S. R. |last2=Will |first2=T. |last3=Marra |first3=P. P. |year=2013 |title=The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=4 |page=1396 |bibcode=2013NatCo...4.1396L |doi=10.1038/ncomms2380 |pmid=23360987 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Certain species appear more susceptible than others; in one English village, for example, 30% of house sparrow mortality was linked to the domestic cat.<ref name="Chucher 1987">{{cite journal |last1=Chucher |first1=P. B. |last2=Lawton |first2=J. H. |year=1987 |title=Predation by domestic cats in an English village |journal=Journal of Zoology, London |volume=212 |issue=3 |pages=439–455 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb02915.x}}</ref> In the recovery of ringed robins (''[[Erithacus rubecula]]'') and dunnocks (''[[Prunella modularis]]'') in Britain, 31% of deaths were a result of cat predation.<ref name="Mead 1982 183–186">{{cite journal |last=Mead |first=C. J. |year=1982 |title=Ringed birds killed by cats |journal=Mammal Review |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=183–186 |bibcode=1982MamRv..12..183M |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.1982.tb00014.x}}</ref> In parts of North America, the presence of larger carnivores such as [[coyote]]s, which prey on cats and other small predators, reduces the effect of predation by cats and other small predators such as [[opossum]]s and [[raccoon]]s on bird numbers and variety.<ref name="Crooks 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Crooks |first1=K. R. |last2=Soul |first2=M. E. |year=1999 |title=Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system |url=http://www38.homepage.villanova.edu/jameson.chace/Urban%20Ecology/Crooks%26Soule_Mesopredator_release.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Nature |volume=400 |issue=6744 |pages=563–566 |bibcode=1999Natur.400..563C |doi=10.1038/23028 |s2cid=4417607 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720110246/http://www38.homepage.villanova.edu/jameson.chace/Urban%20Ecology/Crooks%26Soule_Mesopredator_release.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref>

Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians. One explanation is that cats adopt humans into their social group and share excess kill with others in the group according to the [[dominance hierarchy]], in which humans are reacted to as if they are at or near the top.<ref name="Leyhausen 1978">{{cite book |last=Leyhausen |first=P. |title=Cat Behavior: The predatory and social behavior of domestic and wild cats |date=1978 |publisher=[[Garland STPM Press]] |isbn=9780824070175 |location=New York}}</ref> Another explanation is that they attempt to teach their guardians to hunt or to help their human as if feeding "an elderly cat, or an inept kitten".<ref name="Morris Catwatching 1">{{cite book |last=Desmond |first=M. |title=Catwatching: Why cats purr and everything else you ever wanted to know |date=2002 |publisher=Ebury Press |isbn=9781409022213 |edition=2nd |location=London |pages=51–52 |chapter=Why does a cat play with its prey before killing it? |access-date=25 October 2020 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3ysT6xTJu4C&pg=PA51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331062240/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3ysT6xTJu4C&pg=PA51 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> This hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, though males have negligible involvement in raising kittens.<ref name="Turner 2000" />{{rp|153}}

=== Fighting ===
[[File:GAto.jpg|thumb|This domestic cat hisses and arches its back.]]
Domestic males are more likely to fight than females.<ref name="Lindell">{{Cite journal |last=Lindell |first=E. M. |title=Intercat Aggression: A Retrospective Study Examining Types of Aggression, Sexes of Fighting Pairs, and Effectiveness of Treatment |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=1–2 |pages=153–162 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00032-4 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The most common reason for feral [[Catfight (animal behavior)|cat fighting]] is competition between two males to mate with a female, and most fights are won by the heavier male.<ref name="courtship">{{Cite journal |title=Mating Behaviors, Courtship Rank and Mating Success of Male Feral Cat (''Felis catus'') |first1=A. |last1=Yamane |first2=T. |last2=Doi |first3=Y. |last3=Ono |journal=Journal of Ethology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=35–44 |year=1996 |doi=10.1007/BF02350090 |s2cid=27456926}}</ref> Another common reason for fighting in domestic cats is the difficulty of establishing territories within a small home.<ref name="Lindell" /> Female cats also fight over territory or to defend their kittens. Neutering decreases or eliminates this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to [[sex hormone]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Determining the Optimal age for Gonadectomy of Dogs and Cats |doi=10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 |year=2007 |last1=Kustritz |first1=M. V. R. |s2cid=4651194 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=231 |issue=11 |pages=1665–1675 |pmid=18052800 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

When cats become aggressive, they try to appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways, hissing, or spitting.<ref name="behaviourguide">{{cite web |year=2007 |title=Cat Behavior: Body Language |url=http://animal.discovery.com/guides/cats/behavior/bodylanguageintro.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224154137/http://animal.discovery.com/guides/cats/behavior/bodylanguageintro.html |archive-date=24 February 2009 |access-date=7 September 2012 |work=AnimalPlanet}}</ref> Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. Cats may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponents. Fights usually consist of grappling, slapping the face and body with the forepaws, and bites. Cats throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent's belly with their hind legs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aggression Between Family Cats and Feline Social Behavior |url=https://www.paws.org/resources/aggression/ |website=PAWS |access-date=6 September 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828003314/https://www.paws.org/resources/aggression/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Serious damage is rare, because the fights are usually short, with the loser fleeing with scratches to the face and ears. More severe fights for mating rights may give deep punctures and lacerations. Normally, serious injuries from fighting are limited to infections from scratches and bites. Bites are probably the main route of transmission of the [[feline immunodeficiency virus]].<ref name="Pederson 1989">{{Cite journal |title=Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Infection |last1=Pedersen |first1=N. C. |last2=Yamamoto |first2=J. K. |last3=Ishida |first3=T. |last4=Hansen |first4=H. |journal=Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology |year=1989 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=111–129 |pmid=2549690 |doi=10.1016/0165-2427(89)90134-7}}</ref> Sexually active males are usually involved in many fights and have battered faces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whiteley |first=H. E. |date=1994 |chapter=Correcting misbehavior |title=Understanding and Training Your Cat or Kitten |publisher=Sunstone Press |location=Santa Fe |pages=146–147 |isbn=9781611390803}}</ref> Cats are willing to threaten animals larger than them to defend their territory, such as dogs and [[Red fox|foxes]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Devlin |first1=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Devlin |title=Cat v fox: what made Downing Street's Larry so brave? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/oct/13/cat-v-fox-what-made-downing-streets-larry-so-brave |access-date=16 October 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016011130/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/oct/13/cat-v-fox-what-made-downing-streets-larry-so-brave |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
{{See also|Kitten}}
[[File:Mating Cats (Domestic cats) in Kannur.jpg|thumb|When cats mate, the tomcat (male) bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a position conducive to [[mating]] known as [[lordosis behavior]].]]
The cat secretes and perceives [[pheromone]]s.<ref name="Bland1979">{{cite journal |last1=Bland |first1=K. P. |year=1979 |title=Tom-cat odour and other pheromones in feline reproduction |journal=Veterinary Science Communications |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=125–136 |url= https://www.gwern.net/docs/catnip/1979-bland.pdf |doi=10.1007/BF02268958 |s2cid=22484090 |access-date=15 May 2019 |archive-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190130202521/https://www.gwern.net/docs/catnip/1979-bland.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Female cats, called ''queens'', are [[polyestrous]] with several [[estrus]] cycles during a year, lasting usually 21 days. They are usually ready to mate between early February and August<ref name="Jemmett1977">{{cite journal |last1=Jemmett |first1=J. E. |last2=Evans |first2=J. M. |year=1977 |title=A survey of sexual behaviour and reproduction of female cats |journal=Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-5827.1977.tb05821.x |pmid=853730}}</ref> in northern temperate zones and throughout the year in equatorial regions.<ref name="estrous_cycle">{{Cite book |title=Feline Reproduction |chapter=Feline Estrous Cycle |series=CABI Books |date=2022 |pages=11–22 |doi=10.1079/9781789247107.0002 |isbn=9781789247084 |editor-last1=Johnson |editor-first1=A.K |editor-last2=Kutzler |editor-first2=M.A |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9781789247107.0002 |access-date=18 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820105417/https://cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9781789247107.0002 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Several males, called tomcats, are attracted to a female in heat. They fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female rejects the male, but eventually, the female allows the male to mate. The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her because a male cat's [[penis]] has a band of about 120–150 backward-pointing [[penile spines]], which are about {{convert|1|mm|in|abbr=on|2}} long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines may provide the female with increased sexual stimulation, which acts to [[Induced ovulation (animals)|induce ovulation]].<ref name="Aronson 1967">{{Cite journal |title=Penile Spines of the Domestic Cat: Their Endocrine-behavior Relations |last1=Aronson |first1=L. R. |last2=Cooper |first2=M. L. |journal=The Anatomical Record |year=1967 |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=71–78 |pmid=6030760 |doi=10.1002/ar.1091570111 |s2cid=13070242 |url= http://www.catcollection.org/files/PenileSpines.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150319031546/http://www.catcollection.org/files/PenileSpines.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Radiography of a pregnant cat.jpg|thumb|upright|In this radiography of a pregnant cat, the skeletons of two fetuses are on the left and right of the uterus.]]
After mating, the female cleans her [[vulva]] thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female attacks him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat.<ref name="compendium" /> Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may not be impregnated by the first male with which they mate.<ref name="Wildt 1980">{{Cite journal |last1=Wildt |first1=D. E. |last2=Seager |first2=S. W. |last3=Chakraborty |first3=P. K. |title=Effect of Copulatory Stimuli on Incidence of Ovulation and on Serum Luteinizing Hormone in the Cat |journal=Endocrinology |year=1980 |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=1212–1217 |pmid=7190893 |doi=10.1210/endo-107-4-1212}}</ref> Furthermore, cats are [[Superfecundation|superfecund]]; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.<ref name="compendium">{{cite web |title=Prolific Cats: The Estrous Cycle |url= http://vlsstore.com/Media/PublicationsArticle/PV_23_12_1049.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161209220101/http://vlsstore.com/Media/PublicationsArticle/PV_23_12_1049.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 December 2016 |publisher=Veterinary Learning Systems |access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref>

The [[morula]] forms 124 hours after conception. At 148 hours, early [[blastocyst]]s form. At 10–12 days, implantation occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Biology of Reproduction |title=In Vivo Embryogenesis, Embryo Migration and Embryonic Mortality in the Domestic Cat |first1=W. F. |last1=Swanson |first2=T. L. |last2=Roth |first3=D. E. |last3=Wilt |doi=10.1095/biolreprod51.3.452 |pmid=7803616 |volume=51 |issue=3 |year=1994 |pages=452–464|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[gestation]] of queens lasts between 64 and 67 days, with an average of 65 days.<ref name="Jemmett1977" /><ref name="Tsutsui 1993">{{Cite journal |last1=Tsutsui |first1=T. |last2=Stabenfeldt |first2=G. H. |title=Biology of Ovarian Cycles, Pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in the Domestic Cat |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility |volume=Supplement 47 |pages=29–35 |year=1993 |pmid=8229938}}</ref>
[[File:പൂച്ചക്കുഞ്ഞുങ്ങൾ (17 ദിവസം പ്രായം).JPG|thumb|Two 17-day-old kittens]]
Based on a study of 2,300 free-ranging queens conducted from May 1998 and October{{Nbsp}}2000, they had one to six kittens per [[Litter (animal)|litter]], with an average of three kittens. They produced a mean of 1.4 litters per year, but a maximum of three litters in a year. Of 169 kittens, 127 died before they were six months old due to a trauma caused in most cases by dog attacks and road accidents.<ref name="Nutter2004">{{cite journal |last1=Nutter |first1=F. B. |last2=Levine |first2=J. F. |last3=Stoskopf |first3=M. K. |s2cid=1903272 |year=2004 |title=Reproductive capacity of free-roaming domestic cats and kitten survival rate |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=225 |issue=9 |pages=1399–1402 |doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1399 |pmid=15552315 |citeseerx=10.1.1.204.1281}}</ref> The first litter is usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks of age. Queens normally reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months, and males at 5–7 months. This varies depending on breed.<ref name="compendium" /> Kittens reach [[puberty]] at the age of 9–10 months.<ref name="Jemmett1977" />

Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks of age, when they are ready to leave their mother.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Book of Cat Care: How to Raise a Happy and Healthy Cat |last1=Behrend |first1=K. |last2=Wegler |first2=M. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Barron's Educational Series]] |location=Hauppauge, New York |isbn=9780812046137 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/completebookofca00behr/page/28 28–29] |chapter=Living with a Cat |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/completebookofca00behr/page/28}}</ref> They can be surgically [[neutering|sterilized]] (spayed or [[castration|castrated]]) as early as seven weeks to limit unwanted reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Early-age Neutering of Dogs and Cats in the United States (A Review) |last1=Olson |first1=P. N. |last2=Kustritz |first2=M. V. |last3=Johnston |first3=S. D. |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility |year=2001 |volume=Supplement 57 |pages=223–232 |pmid=11787153}}</ref> This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as aggression, [[spraying (animal behavior)|territory marking]] (spraying urine) in males, and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally, this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is increasingly being performed before [[puberty]], at about three to six months.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats |last=Root Kustritz |first=M. V. |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|year=2007 |volume=231 |issue=11 |pages=1665–1675 |doi=10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 |pmid=18052800 |s2cid=4651194 |url= http://www.imom.org/spay-neuter/pdf/kustritz.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100713133619/http://www.imom.org/spay-neuter/pdf/kustritz.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 July 2010}}</ref> In the United States, about 80% of household cats are neutered.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Population characteristics and neuter status of cats living in households in the United States |last1=Chu |first1=K. |last2=Anderson |first2=W. M. |last3=Rieser |first3=M. Y. |s2cid=39208758 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|year=2009 |volume=234 |issue=8 |pages=1023–1030 |doi=10.2460/javma.234.8.1023 |pmid=19366332|doi-access=free}}</ref>