Editing Cadmium (section)

==Safety==
{{Main|Cadmium poisoning}}
{{Chembox
|container_only = yes
|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS =
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS06}} {{GHS08}} {{GHS09}}
| GHSSignalWord = Danger
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|H301|H330|H341|H350|H361fd|H372|H410}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|P201|P202|P260|P264|P273|P304 + P340 + P310}}
| GHS_ref  =<ref>GHS: {{cite web |url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=265454&brand=ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F265454%3Flang%3Den |title=Safety Data Sheet |publisher=Sigma-Aldrich|date=2021-09-12 |access-date=2021-12-22}}</ref>
| NFPA-H = 4
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 0
| NFPA-S = 
| NFPA_ref = 
 }}
}}

Individuals and organizations have been reviewing cadmium's bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity.<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Maret
|first1=Wolfgang
|last2=Moulis
|first2=Jean-Marc
|title=Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality
|chapter=The Bioinorganic Chemistry of Cadmium in the Context of Its Toxicity
|editor=Astrid Sigel
|editor2=Helmut Sigel
|editor3=Roland K. O. Sigel
|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences
|volume=11
|date=2013
|publisher=Springer
|pages=1–30
|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_1|pmid=23430768
|isbn=978-94-007-5178-1
}}
</ref> The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in [[metal fume fever]], but may progress to chemical [[pneumonitis]], [[pulmonary edema]], and death.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vgHXTId8rnYC|title = Principles and Methods of Toxicology|first = Andrew Wallace|last = Hayes|publisher = CRC Press|place = Philadelphia|date = 2007|pages = 858–861|isbn=978-0-8493-3778-9}}</ref>

Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Other sources of cadmium include bread, root crops, and vegetables.<ref name="news.yahoo.com">Mann, Denise (23 April 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426102047/http://news.yahoo.com/heavy-metal-foods-cosmetics-spur-breast-cancer-spread-200608223.html Can Heavy Metal in Foods, Cosmetics Spur Breast Cancer Spread?] HealthDayBy via Yahoo</ref>

[[File:Jinzu River.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jinzū River]] area, which was contaminated with cadmium]]
There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. Research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing, {{as of|2012|lc=yes}}.<ref name="news.yahoo.com" /> In the decades leading up to [[World War II]], mining operations contaminated the [[Jinzū River]] in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed [[itai-itai]] disease and renal abnormalities, including [[proteinuria]] and [[glucosuria]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Environmental cadmium exposure, adverse effects, and preventative measures in Japan|first1 = Koji|last1 = Nogawa|journal = Biometals|date = 2004|volume = 17|issue = 5|pages =581–587|doi = 10.1023/B:BIOM.0000045742.81440.9c|pmid = 15688869|last2 = Kobayashi|first2 = E.|last3 = Okubo|first3 = Y.|last4 = Suwazono|first4 = Y.|s2cid = 8053594}}</ref> The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and low body stores of other minerals. Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels. Thus, although cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Cadmium is one of ten substances banned by the European Union's [[Restriction of Hazardous Substances]] (RoHS) directive, which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.<ref>{{CELEX|32006D0690|text=2006/690/EC: Commission Decision of 12 October 2006 amending, for the purposes of adapting to technical progress, the Annex to Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards exemptions for applications of lead in crystal glass (notified under document number C(2006) 4789)}}</ref>

The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans.<ref>{{Cite book |author=IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29943893 |title=Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry |year=1993 |isbn=92-832-1258-4 |location=Geneva|publisher= International Agency for Research on Cancer, Secretariat of the World Health Organization|oclc=29943893}}</ref> Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer, there is still uncertainty about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure. Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet is associated with a higher risk of endometrial, breast, and prostate cancer as well as with osteoporosis in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 22850555
| pmc = 3425979
| year = 2012
| last1 = Julin
| first1 = B.
| title = Dietary cadmium exposure and prostate cancer incidence: A population-based prospective cohort study
| journal = British Journal of Cancer
| volume = 107
| issue = 5
| pages = 895–900
| last2 = Wolk
| first2 = A.
| last3 = Johansson
| first3 = J. E.
| last4 = Andersson
| first4 = S. O.
| last5 = Andrén
| first5 = O.
| last6 = Akesson
| first6 = A.
| doi = 10.1038/bjc.2012.311
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 22465267
| year = 2012
| last1 = Engström
| first1 = A.
| title = Associations between dietary cadmium exposure and bone mineral density and risk of osteoporosis and fractures among women
| journal = Bone
| volume = 50
| issue = 6
| pages = 1372–8
| last2 = Michaëlsson
| first2 = K.
| last3 = Vahter
| first3 = M.
| last4 = Julin
| first4 = B.
| last5 = Wolk
| first5 = A.
| last6 = Åkesson
| first6 = A.
| doi = 10.1016/j.bone.2012.03.018
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 22422990
| year = 2012
| last1 = Julin
| first1 = B.
| title = Dietary cadmium exposure and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: A population-based prospective cohort study
| journal = Cancer Research
| volume = 72
| issue = 6
| pages = 1459–66
| last2 = Wolk
| first2 = A.
| last3 = Bergkvist
| first3 = L.
| last4 = Bottai
| first4 = M.
| last5 = Akesson
| first5 = A.
| doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-0735
| doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 18676869
| year = 2008
| last1 = Akesson
| first1 = A.
| title = Long-term dietary cadmium intake and postmenopausal endometrial cancer incidence: A population-based prospective cohort study
| journal = Cancer Research
| volume = 68
| issue = 15
| pages = 6435–41
| last2 = Julin
| first2 = B.
| last3 = Wolk
| first3 = A.
| doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-0329
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females.<ref>{{Cite journal
| pmid = 24834829
| year = 2014
| last1 = Rzymski
| first1 = P.
| title = Metal status in human endometrium: Relation to cigarette smoking and histological lesions
| journal = Environmental Research
| volume = 132
| pages = 328–33
| last2 = Rzymski
| first2 = P.
| last3 = Tomczyk
| first3 = K.
| last4 = Niedzielski
| first4 = P.
| last5 = Jakubowski
| first5 = K.
| last6 = Poniedziałek
| first6 = B.
| last7 = Opala
| first7 = T.
| doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2014.04.025
|bibcode = 2014ER....132..328R }}</ref>

Cadmium exposure is associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease,<ref name="zn-cd.diseases" /> early atherosclerosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.<ref>[http://www.medinewsdirect.com/?p=704 Cadmium Exposure can Induce Early Atherosclerotic Changes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315135304/http://www.medinewsdirect.com/?p=704 |date=15 March 2012 }}, Medinews Direct, 7 September 2009</ref> Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations, a molecular mechanism has not yet been identified. One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an [[endocrine disruptor]] and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different [[Hormone|hormonal]] signaling pathways. For example, cadmium can bind to the [[estrogen receptor]] alpha,<ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 21829690
| pmc = 3149063
| year = 2011
| last1 = Fechner
| first1 = P.
| title = Biosensors paving the way to understanding the interaction between cadmium and the estrogen receptor alpha
| journal = PLOS ONE
| volume = 6
| issue = 8
| pages = e23048
| last2 = Damdimopoulou
| first2 = P.
| last3 = Gauglitz
| first3 = G.
| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0023048
|bibcode = 2011PLoSO...623048F | doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 10770491
| year = 2000
| last1 = Stoica
| first1 = A.
| title = Activation of estrogen receptor-alpha by the heavy metal cadmium
| journal = Molecular Endocrinology
| volume = 14
| issue = 4
| pages = 545–53
| last2 = Katzenellenbogen
| first2 = B. S.
| last3 = Martin
| first3 = M. B.
| doi = 10.1210/mend.14.4.0441
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> and affect signal transduction along the [[estrogen]] and [[MAPK]] signaling pathways at low doses.<ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 20525538
| pmc = 2957917
| year = 2010
| last1 = Ali
| first1 = I.
| title = Estrogen-like effects of cadmium in vivo do not appear to be mediated via the classical estrogen receptor transcriptional pathway
| journal = Environmental Health Perspectives
| volume = 118
| issue = 10
| pages = 1389–94
| last2 = Penttinen-Damdimopoulou
| first2 = P. E.
| last3 = Mäkelä
| first3 = S. I.
| last4 = Berglund
| first4 = M.
| last5 = Stenius
| first5 = U.
| last6 = Akesson
| first6 = A.
| last7 = Håkansson
| first7 = H.
| last8 = Halldin
| first8 = K.
| doi = 10.1289/ehp.1001967
| bibcode = 2010EnvHP.118.1389A
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 22314386
| year = 2012
| last1 = Ali
| first1 = I.
| title = Cadmium-induced effects on cellular signaling pathways in the liver of transgenic estrogen reporter mice
| journal = Toxicological Sciences
| volume = 127
| issue = 1
| pages = 66–75
| last2 = Damdimopoulou
| first2 = P.
| last3 = Stenius
| first3 = U.
| last4 = Adamsson
| first4 = A.
| last5 = Mäkelä
| first5 = S. I.
| last6 = Åkesson
| first6 = A.
| last7 = Berglund
| first7 = M.
| last8 = Håkansson
| first8 = H.
| last9 = Halldin
| first9 = K.
| doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfs077
| doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 12858169
| year = 2003
| last1 = Johnson
| first1 = M. D.
| title = Cadmium mimics the in vivo effects of estrogen in the uterus and mammary gland
| journal = Nature Medicine
| volume = 9
| issue = 8
| pages = 1081–4
| last2 = Kenney
| first2 = N.
| last3 = Stoica
| first3 = A.
| last4 = Hilakivi-Clarke
| first4 = L.
| last5 = Singh
| first5 = B.
| last6 = Chepko
| first6 = G.
| last7 = Clarke
| first7 = R.
| last8 = Sholler
| first8 = P. F.
| last9 = Lirio
| first9 = A. A.
| last10 = Foss
| first10 = C.
| last11 = Reiter
| first11 = R.
| last12 = Trock
| first12 = B.
| last13 = Paik
| first13 = S.
| last14 = Martin
| first14 = M. B.
| doi = 10.1038/nm902
| s2cid = 39484160
}}</ref>

The [[tobacco plant]] absorbs and accumulates [[heavy metals]] such as cadmium from the surrounding soil into its leaves. Following tobacco smoke inhalation, these are readily absorbed into the body of users.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.talanta.2011.12.027|pmid=22284492|title=Preconcentration and determination of copper in tobacco leaves samples by using a minicolumn of sisal fiber (Agave sisalana) loaded with Alizarin fluorine blue by FAAS|journal=Talanta|volume=89|issue=1|pages=276–279|year=2012|last1=Dias|first1=Fábio de S.|last2=Bonsucesso|first2=Josemário S.|last3=Oliveira|first3=Lucas C.|last4=Dos Santos|first4=Walter N.L.|doi-access=free}}</ref> Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. An estimated 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut. As much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1146/annurev.pu.04.050183.002055|doi-access=free|journal = Annual Review of Public Health|volume = 4|pmid = 6860444|pages = 367–73|date = 1983|title = Cadmium|first = L.|last = Friberg}}</ref>
On average, cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4&nbsp;to 5 times greater than non-smokers and in the kidney, 2–3 times greater than in non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from [[passive smoking]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume = 24|pages = 11–51|date = 1998|title = Health effects of cadmium exposure – a review of the literature and a risk estimate|first = L.|last = Jarup|pmid = 9569444}}</ref>

In a non-smoking population, food accounts for around 90% of cadmium uptake.<ref>''Final review of scientific information on cadmium'' ([https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/27636/Cadmium_Review.pdf pdf-document]), [[United Nations Environment Programme]], Chemicals Branch, DTIE, December 2010</ref> 
High quantities of cadmium can be found in [[crustacean]]s, [[Mollusca|mollusks]], [[offal]], [[frog legs]], [[cocoa solids]], bitter and semi-bitter [[chocolate]], [[seaweed]], [[fungi]] and [[algae]] products. However, grains, vegetables, and starchy roots and [[tubers]] are consumed in much greater quantity in the U.S., and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure there.<ref name="efsa.europa.eu">{{cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2551|title=Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population – European Food Safety Authority|website=www.efsa.europa.eu|date=2012-01-18}}</ref> 

Most plants bio-accumulate metal toxins such as cadmium and when composted to form organic fertilizers, yield a product that often can contain high amounts (e.g., over 0.5&nbsp;mg) of metal toxins for every kilogram of fertilizer. Fertilizers made from [[animal dung]] (e.g., cow dung) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of cadmium. The cadmium added to the soil from [[fertilizer]]s (rock phosphates or organic fertilizers) become bio-available and toxic only if the [[soil pH]] is low (i.e., acidic soils). In the European Union, an analysis of almost 22,000 [[topsoil]] samples with LUCAS survey concluded that 5.5% of samples have concentrations higher than 1&nbsp;mg kg<sup>−1</sup>.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ballabio |first1=Cristiano |last2=Jones |first2=Arwyn |last3=Panagos |first3=Panos |date=2024-02-01 |title=Cadmium in topsoils of the European Union – An analysis based on LUCAS topsoil database |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=912 |pages=168710 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168710|doi-access=free |pmid=38008327 |bibcode= 2024ScTEn.91268710B}}</ref>

Zinc, copper, calcium, and iron ions, and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat cadmium intoxication, although it is not easily reversed.<ref name="zn-cd.diseases">{{cite web|url=http://www.arltma.com/Articles/CadmiumToxDoc.htm|title=ARL : Cadmium Toxicity|website=www.arltma.com|access-date=7 July 2016|archive-date=9 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909101141/http://www.arltma.com/Articles/CadmiumToxDoc.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Regulations===
Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health, the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH Regulation]].

The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2.5 μg/kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans.<ref name="efsa.europa.eu" /> The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg/kg body weight to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jeceval/jec_297.htm|title=JECFA Evaluations-CADMIUM-|website=www.inchem.org}}</ref> The state of [[California]] requires a food label to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium on products such as cocoa powder.<ref>such as seen on the organic cocoa powder marketed by Better Body Foods, for example</ref> The European Commission has put in place the EU regulation (2019/1009) on fertilizing products (EU, 2019), adopted in June 2019 and fully applicable as of July 2022. It sets a Cd limit value in phosphate fertilizers to 60&nbsp;mg kg<sup>−1</sup> of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>.

The U.S. [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) for cadmium at a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.005 ppm. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has not set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen. The [[IDLH]] (immediately dangerous to life and health) level for cadmium is 9&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{PGCH|0087}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Lethal dose<ref>{{IDLH|7440439|Cadmium compounds (as Cd)}}</ref>
!Organism
!Route
!Time
|-
|LD<sub>50</sub>: 225&nbsp;mg/kg
|rat
|oral
|n/a
|-
|LD<sub>50</sub>: 890&nbsp;mg/kg
|mouse
|oral
|n/a
|-
|LC<sub>50</sub>: 25&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>
|rat
|airborne
|30 min
|}

In addition to mercury, the presence of cadmium in some [[Nickel–cadmium battery#Environmental impact|batteries]] has led to the requirement of proper disposal (or recycling) of batteries.

===Product recalls===
In May 2006, a sale of the seats from [[Arsenal F.C.]]'s old stadium, [[Arsenal Stadium|Highbury]] in London, England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.<ref>{{Cite news| title = Toxic fears hit Highbury auction| work = BBC Sport| access-date =29 November 2010| date = 10 May 2006| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/4757797.stm}}</ref> Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a US [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]] investigation.<ref>{{Cite news| title = U.S. to Develop Safety Standards for Toxic Metals| work = Business Week| access-date =12 January 2010| date = 12 January 2010| url = http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-01-12/u-s-to-develop-safety-standards-for-toxic-metals-update1-.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100123234520/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-01-12/u-s-to-develop-safety-standards-for-toxic-metals-update1-.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 23 January 2010}}</ref> The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by [[Claire's]]<ref>{{Cite news| title = Claire's Recalls Children's Metal Charm Bracelets Due to High Levels of Cadmium| work = U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission| access-date = 5 June 2010| date = 10 May 2010| url = http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10227.html| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100531181434/http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/prerel/prhtml10/10227.html| archive-date = 31 May 2010}}</ref> and [[Wal-Mart]]<ref>{{Cite news| title = FAF Inc. Recalls Children's Necklaces Sold Exclusively at Walmart Stores Due to High Levels of Cadmium| work = U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission| access-date = 5 June 2010| date = 29 January 2010| url = http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10127.html| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100527202913/http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/prerel/prhtml10/10127.html| archive-date = 27 May 2010}}</ref> stores.

In June 2010, [[McDonald's]] voluntarily recalled more than 12&nbsp;million promotional ''[[Shrek Forever After|Shrek Forever After 3D]]'' Collectible Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware.<ref>{{Cite news| title = McDonald's Recalls 12&nbsp;Million 'Shrek' Glasses| work = The New York Times| access-date =5 June 2010| date = 4 June 2010| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/05/business/05recall.html| first=William| last=Neuman}}</ref> The glasses were manufactured by [[Arc International (tableware)|Arc International]], of [[Millville, New Jersey]], USA.<ref>{{Cite news| title = McDonald's Recalls Movie Themed Drinking Glasses Due to Potential Cadmium Risk| work = U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission| access-date = 5 June 2010| date = 4 June 2010| url = http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10257.html| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100607024105/http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/prerel/prhtml10/10257.html| archive-date = 7 June 2010}}</ref>