Editing 1990s (section)

===Technology===
{{See also|Timeline of computing 1990–1999}}
[[File:CD autolev crop new.jpg|thumb|225x225px|The [[compact disc]] reached its peak in popularity in the 1990s, and not once did another [[Timeline of audio formats|audio format]] surpass the CD in [[Record sales|music sales]] from 1991 throughout the remainder of the decade. By 2000, the CD accounted for 92.3% of the entire [[market share]] in regard to music sales.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Music Revenue Database |url=https://www.riaa.com/u-s-sales-database/ |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=RIAA |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
The 1990s were a revolutionary decade for [[information technology|digital technology]]. Between 1990 and 1997, household [[personal computer|PC]] ownership in the US rose from 15% to 35%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/archive/computer-ownership-up-sharply-in-the-1990s-pdf.pdf|title=Computer Ownership Up Sharply in the 1990s}}</ref> Cell phones of the early-1990s and earlier ones were very large, lacked extra features, and were used by only a few percent of the population of even the advanced nations. Only a few million people used online services in 1990, and the [[World Wide Web]], which would have a significant impact on technology for many decades, had only just been invented. The first web browser went online in 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nymag.com/news/articles/13/02/1993/index2.html|title=Did 1993 Change Everything? &ndash; New York Magazine|website=nymag.com}}</ref> By 2001, more than 50% of some Western countries had Internet access, and more than 25% had cell phone access.

====Electronics and communications====
===== Internet =====
The 90s were a vital period for the development of the [[Internet]]. Several inventions and applications were launched to create the web as it's known today. [[Tim Berners-Lee]], an English computer scientist, released the [[World Wide Web]] to the general public on April 30, 1993.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Wide Web (WWW) launches in the public domain {{!}} April 30, 1993 |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/world-wide-web-launches-in-public-domain |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> The same year, [[NCSA Mosaic#:~:text=Mosaic, the first web browser,Mosaic appeared on the scene.|Mosaic]], one of the first widely available web browsers, was launched as the first browser to display images in line with text and not in a separate window.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Browser {{!}} Web surfing, navigation, search engine {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/browser#ref1036937 |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In 1990, [[Archie (search engine)|Archie]], the world's first search engine, was released. In the early days of its development, Archie served as an index of [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP) sites, which was a method for moving files between a client and a server network.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nguyen |first=Jennimai |date=2020-09-10 |title=Archie, the very first search engine, was released 30 years ago today |url=https://mashable.com/article/first-search-engine-archie?test_uuid=01iI2GpryXngy77uIpA3Y4B&test_variant=b |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is File Transfer Protocol (FTP) meaning |url=https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/file-transfer-protocol-ftp-meaning |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=Fortinet |language=en}}</ref> This early search tool was superseded by more advanced engines like [[Yahoo!]] in 1995 and [[Google Search|Google]] in 1998.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Clark |first=Andrew |date=2008-02-01 |title=How Jerry's guide to the world wide web became Yahoo |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/feb/01/microsoft.technology |access-date=2025-01-09 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-09 |title=Britannica Money |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Google-Inc |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Following the launch of the early Internet and fiber optic capabilities to the public, a significant shift occurred. Consumers, recognizing the potential of the Internet, began to demand more network capacity. This surge in demand spurred developers to seek solutions to reduce the time and cost of laying new fiber, in order to meet the growing needs of the public.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Birth of the Commercial Internet - NSF Impacts {{!}} NSF - National Science Foundation |url=https://new.nsf.gov/impacts/internet#:~:text=Going%20public,dedicated%20infrastructure%20backbone%20in%201995. |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=new.nsf.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/short-history-internet “A Short History of the Internet.”] ''National Science and Media Museum'', 3 Dec. 2020, www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/short-history-internet. </ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Internet Commercialization History |url=https://internethistory.org/commercialization/ |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=History of the Internet |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1992, [[David R. Huber|David Huber]], an optical networking engineer, joined forces with entrepreneur [[Kevin Kimberlin]]. Together, they laid the foundation for a new era in telecommunications with the birth of [[Ciena|Ciena Corporation]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>Hirsch, Stacey (February 2, 2006). "Huber steps down as CEO of Broadwing". The Baltimore Sun.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. David Huber |url=https://internethistory.org/bio/dr-david-huber/ |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=History of the Internet |language=en-US}}</ref> The company would harness the technology physicist [[Gordon Gould]], inventor of the [[laser]] (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), had pioneered with co-founder William Culver of [[Optelecom]], an early creator of fiber optic cable and optical amplifiers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=May 17, 1993, page 76 - The Baltimore Sun at Baltimore Sun |url=https://baltimoresun.newspapers.com/image/170916535/ |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Newspapers.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>Hall, Carla. [http://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-12-17-vw-29544-story.html “Inventor Beams over Laser Patents : After 30 Years, Gordon Gould Gets Credit He Deserves.”] Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 17 Dec. 1987.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=2005-09-20 |title=Gordon Gould, 85, Figure in Invention of the Laser, Dies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/20/science/gordon-gould-85-figure-in-invention-of-the-laser-dies.html |access-date=2025-01-10 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Ciena's former [[Chief executive officer#:~:text=A chief executive officer (CEO,company or a nonprofit organization.|chief executive officer]] Pat Nettles, and a team of engineers attempted to transmit information on waves of light with a form of a laser.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carroll |first=Jim |date=2024-12-12 |title=Patrick Nettles Steps Down as Executive Chair of Ciena |url=https://convergedigest.com/patrick-nettles-steps-down-as-executive-chair-of-ciena/ |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Converge Digest |language=en-US}}</ref> The team began working on a dual-stage optical amplifier that enabled [[Wavelength-division multiplexing|dense wave division multiplexing]] (DWDM), which allowed large amounts of data to be transmitted across the nation.<ref>Alexander, Stephen B., Chaddick, Steve w., et al. WDM Optical Communication System with Remodulators. [https://ppubs.uspto.gov/dirsearch-public/print/downloadBasicPdf/5696615?requestToken=eyJzdWIiOiJkMjI1MjEyYS1hMDg5LTRmMzctYTBkMS1hYzA3ZmE1NzdjNjAiLCJ2ZXIiOiJmMDdlYWY4Ny04NGU1LTRmNGYtYmVhMC01OTM0NTJmOWRhOGUiLCJleHAiOjB9 US Patent 5,504,609.], May 11, 1995., April 2, 1996.</ref> The firm filed a patent on a dual-stage amplifier on November 13, 1995.<ref>Alexander, Stephen B., Chaddick, Steve w., et al. Wavelength division multiplexed optical communication systems employing uniform gain optical amplifiers. [https://ppubs.uspto.gov/dirsearch-public/print/downloadBasicPdf/5696615?requestToken=eyJzdWIiOiIzOGEyYzYxMC04N2U3LTRjNWMtOWM3Mi1hZWNlYTgyNzE4ZDciLCJ2ZXIiOiJmNTVjYWQ0MS1lZDM5LTRhNTAtYTg0Yy01YjcxMjBlN2RiYjgiLCJleHAiOjB9 US Patent 5,696,615.], November 13, 1995., December 9, 1997.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1995-12-01 |title=Angst and Awe on the Internet |url=https://www.discovery.org/a/25/ |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Discovery Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> A year later, in 1996, Ciena made history by deploying the world's first dense [[wavelength-division multiplexing]] (WDM) system on the [[Sprint Corporation|Sprint]] fiber network.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winzer |first=Peter J. |last2=Neilson |first2=David T. |last3=Chraplyvy |first3=Andrew R. |date=2018-09-03 |title=Fiber-optic transmission and networking: the previous 20 and the next 20 years [Invited] |url=https://opg.optica.org/oe/viewmedia.cfm?uri=oe-26-18-24190&html=true |journal=Optics Express |language=en |volume=26 |issue=18 |pages=24190 |doi=10.1364/OE.26.024190 |issn=1094-4087|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hecht |first=Jeff |title=City of light: the story of fiber optics |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-510818-7 |edition=Rev. and expanded ed., 1. paperback [ed.] |series=The Sloan technology series |location=Oxford}}</ref> These developments eventually formed the backbone of every global communications network, and the foundation of the Internet.<ref name=":4" />

Prominent [[website]]s launched during the decade include [[IMDb]] (1993), [[eBay]] (1995), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] (1994), [[GeoCities]] (1994), [[Netscape]] (1994), [[Yahoo!]] (1995), [[AltaVista]] (1995), [[AIM (software)|AIM]] (1997), [[ICQ]] (1996), [[Hotmail]] (1996), [[Google]] (1998), [[Napster]] (1999). The pioneering [[peer-to-peer]] (P2P) file sharing internet service [[Napster]], which launched in Fall 1999, was the first peer-to-peer software to become massively popular. While at the time it was possible to share files in other ways via the Internet (such as [[IRC]] and [[USENET]]), Napster was the first software to focus exclusively on sharing [[MP3|MP3 files]] for [[music]].

*On 6 August 1991, [[CERN]], a pan-European organization for particle research, publicized the new World Wide Web project.<ref name="wwwinvent">{{Cite news|title=How the Web Was Spun|url=http://www.time.com/time/80days/910806.html|last=Grossman|first=Lev|date=31 March 2003|work=Time Magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625000847/http://www.time.com/time/80days/910806.html|archive-date=25 June 2009|quote=Berners-Lee's computer faithfully logged the exact second the site was launched: 2:56:20&nbsp;pm, 6 August 1991.|access-date=19 July 2009|url-status=dead }}</ref> Although the basic applications and guidelines that make the Internet possible had existed for almost two decades, the network did not gain a public face until the 1990s.
*Advancements in [[Modem|computer modems]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[cable modem]]s, and [[Digital subscriber line|DSL]] led to faster connections to the Internet.
*Businesses start to build [[e-commerce]] websites; e-commerce-only companies such as [[Amazon.com]], [[eBay]], [[AOL]], and [[Yahoo!]] grow rapidly.

*Driven by mass adoption, consumer [[personal computer]] specifications increased dramatically during the 1990s, from 512 KB RAM 12&nbsp;MHz [[White box (computer hardware)|Turbo XTs]] in 1990,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA5|title=InfoWorld Jan 8 1990|publisher=InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.|date=8 January 1990}}</ref> to 25–66&nbsp;MHz [[Intel 80486|80486]]-class processor<ref>{{cite web|url=http://winsupersite.com/article/commentary/blast-buying-computer-1995-141723|title=Blast from the Past: Buying a Computer in 1995|date=27 December 2011|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518080723/http://winsupersite.com/article/commentary/blast-buying-computer-1995-141723|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> to over 1&nbsp;GHz CPUs with close to a [[gigabyte]] of RAM by 2000.
[[File:Y2K Logo.gif|thumb|right|The logo created by The President's Council on the [[Year 2000 problem|Year 2000 Conversion]], for use on Y2K.gov]]
*[[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] spread fear throughout the United States and eventually the world in the last half of the decade, particularly in 1999, about possible massive computer malfunctions on 1 January 2000. As a result, many people stocked up on supplies for fear of a worldwide disaster. After significant effort to upgrade systems on the part of software engineers, no failures occurred when the clocks rolled over into 2000.
*The [[P5 (microarchitecture)|first Pentium microprocessor]] is introduced and developed by the [[Intel|Intel Corporation]].
*Email becomes popular; as a result, [[Microsoft]] acquires the popular [[Outlook.com|Hotmail]] webmail service.
*[[Instant messaging]] and the [[contact list|buddy list]] feature becomes popular. [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]] and [[ICQ]] are two early protocols.
*The introduction of affordable, smaller [[satellite dish]]es and the [[DVB-S]] standard in the mid-1990s expanded satellite television services that carried up to 500 television channels.
*The first MP3 player, the [[MPMan]], is released in the late spring of 1998. It came with 32 MB of [[flash memory]] expandable to 64 MB. By the mid-2000s, the MP3 player would overtake the CD player in popularity.
*The first [[GSM]] network is launched in Finland in 1991.
*[[Digital single-lens reflex camera]]s and regular [[digital camera]]s become commercially available. They would replace film cameras by the late 1990s and early 2000s.
*[[IBM]] introduces the {{convert|1|in|mm|adj=on}} wide [[Microdrive]] hard drive in 170 MB and 340 MB capacities.
*[[Apple Computer]] in 1998 introduces the [[iMac]] all-in-one computer, initiating a trend in computer design towards translucent plastics and multicolour case design, discontinuing many [[legacy system|legacy technologies]] like [[serial port]]s, and beginning a resurgence in the company's fortunes that continues to this day.
*[[Optical disc drive|CD burner]] drives are introduced.
*The [[CD-ROM]] drive became standard for most personal computers during the decade.
*The [[DVD]] media format is developed and popularized along with a plethora of [[memory card|Flash memory card]] standards in 1994.
*[[Pager]]s are initially popular but ultimately are replaced by mobile phones by the early-2000s.
*Hand-held [[satellite phone]]s are introduced towards the end of the decade.
*The [[24-hour news cycle]] becomes popular alongside the outbreak of the [[Gulf War]] between late 1990 and early 1991, and is solidified with CNN's coverage of [[Desert Storm]] and [[Operation Desert Shield (Gulf War)|Desert Shield]]. Though CNN had been running 24-hour newscasts since 1980, it was not until the Gulf War that the general public took notice, and others imitated CNN's non-stop news approach.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://birminghamskews.com/post/4544141336/this-truly-is-our-story|title=This truly is our story|access-date=3 June 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324225107/http://birminghamskews.com/post/4544141336/this-truly-is-our-story|archive-date=24 March 2012 }}</ref>
*[[Portable CD player]]s, introduced during the late 1980s, became very popular and profoundly impacted the music industry and youth culture during the 1990s.
*In 1992, [[Fujitsu]] introduced the world's first {{convert|21|in|cm|adj=on}} full-color display [[plasma display]] television set.

<gallery widths="190" perrow="4">
File:EC1835 C cut.jpg|A typical early 1990s [[personal computer]].
File:Discman D121.jpg|An early [[portable CD player]], a Sony Discman model D121.
File:Nokia Mobira Cityman 5000.jpg|Mobile phones gained massive popularity worldwide during the decade.
File:Motorolapager.jpg|[[Pager]]s became widely popular.
</gallery>

====Software====
*[[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems become virtually ubiquitous on [[IBM PC compatible]]s.
*[[Microsoft]] introduces [[Windows 3.1]], [[Windows 95]], and [[Windows 98]] to the market, which gain immediate popularity.
*Macintosh [[System 7]] was released in 1991. For much of the decade, Apple would struggle to develop a next-generation graphical operating system, starting with [[Copland (operating system)|Copland]] and culminating in its December 1996 buyout of [[NeXT]] and the 1999 release of [[Mac OS X Server 1.0]].
*The development of [[web browser]]s such as [[Netscape Navigator]] and [[Internet Explorer]] makes surfing the [[World Wide Web]] easier and more [[Usability|user-friendly]].
*The [[Java (programming language)|Java programming language]] is developed by [[Sun Microsystems]] (later acquired by [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] in 2009–2010).
*In 1991, development of the free [[Linux kernel]] was started by 21-year-old [[Linus Torvalds]] in Finland.
*[[SolidWorks]] [[computer-aided design]] software for Windows released in 1995.
*[[Adobe Shockwave Player|Macromedia Shockwave Player]] for multimedia in browsers released in 1995.
*[[Winamp]] media player first released 1997.
*[[QuickTime]] media player created in 1991.

====Rail transportation====
The opening of the [[Channel Tunnel]] between France and the United Kingdom saw the commencement by the three national railway companies of Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, respectively [[National Railway Company of Belgium|SNCB/NMBS]], [[SNCF]] and [[British Rail]] of the joint [[Eurostar]] service.

[[File:Eurostar.svg|thumb|left|200px|[[Eurostar]] logo 1994–2011]]
[[File:Eurostars at waterloo international.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of [[British Rail Class 373|Eurostar trains]] at the former [[Waterloo International railway station|Waterloo International]] since moved to [[St Pancras railway station|St Pancras International]]]]
On 14 November 1994 Eurostar services began between [[Waterloo International railway station|Waterloo International]] station in London, [[Gare du Nord]] in Paris and [[Brussels-South railway station|Brussels South]] in Brussels.<ref name='EuroTun His'>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcDevelopment/ukpHistory|title=Our history|publisher=Eurotunnel|access-date=10 May 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103073037/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcDevelopment/ukpHistory|archive-date=3 January 2010 }}</ref><ref name = 'waterloovid'>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Whnt8cYaNng |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/Whnt8cYaNng| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Official Waterloo 'Goodbye' video, useful statistics and numbers shown|publisher=YouTube.com|date=20 December 2007|access-date=27 April 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name = 'Watlooguardi'>{{cite news
|title= Waterloo International: 1994–2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/gallery/2007/nov/13/railtravel?picture=331254132
|work = [[The Guardian]]|location = London|date=13 November 2007}}</ref>
In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average end-to-end speed of {{convert|171.5|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} between London and Paris.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr40/pdf/f04_tak.pdf|title=High-speed Railways:The last ten years|last=Takagi|first=Ryo|journal=Japan Railway & Transport Review|issue=40|pages=4–7|date=March 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620081824/http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr40/pdf/f04_tak.pdf|archive-date=20 June 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
On 8 January 1996 Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when [[Ashford International railway station|Ashford International]] was opened.<ref>{{cite press release|url= http://www.eurostar.com/UK/uk/leisure/about_eurostar/press_release/press_archive_2006/09_01_06_Eurostar_celebrates_10_years.jsp|title= Eurostar celebrates 10 years at Ashford International|publisher= Eurostar|date= 9 January 2006|access-date= <!---- 25 April 2009----->|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120522090109/http://www.eurostar.com/UK/uk/leisure/about_eurostar/press_release/press_archive_2006/09_01_06_Eurostar_celebrates_10_years.jsp|archive-date= 22 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Journey times between London and Brussels were reduced by the opening of the [[High Speed 1]] line on 14 December 1997.

====Automobiles====
<!-- Commented out: [[File:Gm-impact.jpg|thumb|right|The [[General Motors EV1]], sold during this decade, It was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker, and the first GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the outset.]] -->

The 1990s began with a [[recession]] that dampened car sales. [[General Motors]] suffered huge losses because of an inefficient structure, stale designs, and poor quality. Sales improved with the economy by the mid-1990s, but GM's US market share gradually declined to less than 40% (from a peak of 50% in the 1970s). While the new [[Saturn Corporation|Saturn]] division fared well, [[Oldsmobile]] fell sharply, and attempts to remake the division as a European-style luxury car were unsuccessful.

Cars in the 1990s had a rounder, more streamlined shape than those from the 1970s and 1980s; this style would continue early into the 2000s and to a lesser extent later on.

[[Chrysler]] ran into financial troubles as it entered the 1990s. Like GM, the Chrysler too had a stale model lineup (except for the best-selling [[Chrysler minivans|minivans]]) that were largely based on the aging [[Chrysler K platform|K-car platform]]. In 1992, chairman [[Lee Iacocca]] retired, and the company began a remarkable revival, introducing the new [[Chrysler LH platform|LH platform]] and "Cab-Forward" styling, along with a highly successful redesign of the full-sized [[Dodge Ram]] in 1994. Chrysler's minivans continued to dominate the market despite increasing competition. In 1998, [[Daimler-Benz]] (the parent company of [[Mercedes-Benz]]) merged with Chrysler. The following year, it was decided to retire [[Plymouth (automobile)|Plymouth]], which had been on a long decline since the 1970s. [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] continued to fare well in the 1990s, with the [[Ford Taurus (second generation)|second]] and [[Ford Taurus (third generation)|third]] generations of the [[Ford Taurus]] being named the best-selling car in the United States from 1992 to 1996. However, the Taurus would be outsold and dethroned by the [[Toyota Camry]] starting in 1997, which became the best-selling car in the United States for the rest of the decade and into the 2000s. Ford also introduced the Ford Explorer, with the first model being sold in 1991. Ford's Explorer became the best-selling SUV on the market, outselling both the Chevy Blazer and Jeep Cherokee.

Japanese cars continued to be highly successful during the decade. The [[Honda Accord]] vied with the Taurus most years for being the best-selling car in the United States during the early decade. Although launched in 1989, the luxury brands [[Lexus]] and [[Infiniti]] began car sales of 1990 model year vehicles and saw great success. Lexus would go on to outsell Mercedes-Benz and BMW in the United States by 1991 and outsell Cadillac and Lincoln by the end of the decade. SUVs and trucks became hugely popular during the economic boom in the decade's second half. Many manufacturers that had never built a truck before started selling SUVs. Fabrication during the 1990s became gradually rounder and ovoid, the [[Ford Taurus (third generation)|Ford Taurus]] and [[Mercury Sable]] being some of the more extreme examples. Safety features such as [[airbags]] and shoulder belts became mandatory equipment on new cars.