Editing Yoga (section)

==== ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' ====

[[File:Patanjali.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Statue of Patanjali as half man, half snake|Traditional Hindu depiction of [[Patanjali]] as an avatar of the divine serpent [[Shesha]]]]

One of the best-known early expressions of [[Brahmin]]ical yoga thought is the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'' (early centuries CE,{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=xxxiv}}{{sfn|Desmarais|2008|p=16-17}}{{efn|name="YS_dating"}} the original name of which may have been the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana'' (c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary.{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|pp=xvi–xvii}} As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text is [[samkhya]]; the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya's [[Arthashastra]] as one of the three categories of ''anviksikis'' (philosophies), with yoga and ''[[Charvaka|Cārvāka]]''.<ref>Original Sanskrit: साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं च इत्यान्वीक्षिकी |<br />English Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/Arthasastra_English_Translation/Arthashastra_of_Chanakya_-_English#page/n9/mode/2up Arthasastra Book 1, Chapter 2] Kautiliya, R Shamasastry (Translator), page 9</ref><ref>Olivelle, Patrick (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-989182-5}}, see Introduction</ref> Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy.<ref name="lpfl" />{{sfn|Burley|2012|pp=31–46}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=453}} Patanjali's system is sometimes called "Seshvara Samkhya", distinguishing it from [[Kapila]]'s Nirivara Samkhya.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1971|p=344}} The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that [[Max Müller]] says, "The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."{{sfn|Müller|1899|p=104}} [[Karel Werner]] wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''.{{refn|Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga."{{sfn|Werner|1998|p=24}}|group=note}}

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Yoga Sutras of Patanjali{{sfn|Stiles|2001|p=x}}
|-
!Pada (Chapter)||English meaning||Sutras
|-
|Samadhi Pada||On being absorbed in spirit|| style="text-align: center" | 51
|-
|Sadhana Pada||On being immersed in spirit|| style="text-align: center" | 55
|-
|Vibhuti Pada||On supernatural abilities and gifts|| style="text-align: center" | 56
|-
|Kaivalya Pada||On absolute freedom|| style="text-align: center" | 34
|}

The ''Yoga Sutras'' are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions.{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|pp=xvi–xvii}} Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga and [[Abhidharma]] Buddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' are a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the "reflective discernment" (''adhyavasaya'') of ''prakrti'' and ''purusa'' (dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their three [[epistemology|epistemological]] methods of obtaining knowledge.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} Larson says that the ''Yoga Sutras'' pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism's ''nirodhasamadhi''; unlike Buddhism's "no self or soul", however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}} The third concept which the ''Yoga Sutras'' synthesize is the [[Sannyasa|ascetic]] tradition of meditation and introspection.{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}}

Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'' are considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy.{{refn|group=note|For [[Patanjali]] as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: {{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984 |p=42}}.}} The verses of the ''Yoga Sutras'' are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the ''Vyasa Bhashya'' (c. 350–450 CE).{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=21–22}} Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. [[I. K. Taimni]] translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (''{{IAST|nirodhaḥ}}'') of the modifications (''{{IAST|vṛtti}}'') of the mind (''{{IAST|citta}}'')".{{sfn|Taimni|1961|p=6}} [[Swami Vivekananda]] translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (''Citta'') from taking various forms (''Vrittis'')."{{sfn|Vivekananda|p=115}} [[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin Bryant]] writes that to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."<ref name=edbryant>Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518185305/https://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ |date=18 May 2019 }} IEP</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=10}}{{sfn|Bryant|2009|p=457}}

[[Baba Hari Dass]] writes that if yoga is understood as [[nirodha]] (mental control), its goal is "the unqualified state of ''niruddha'' (the perfection of that process)".{{sfn|Dass|1999|p=5}} "Yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state&nbsp;... as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."{{sfn|Dass|1999|p=5}}

Patanjali defined an [[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|eight-limbed yoga]] in ''Yoga Sutras'' 2.29:
# [[Yamas|Yama]] (The five abstentions): [[Ahimsa]] (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),<ref>James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 777</ref> [[Satya]] (truthfulness, non-falsehood),<ref name=artid>Arti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372</ref> [[Asteya]] (non-stealing),<ref name=mngulati /> [[Brahmacharya]] (celibacy, fidelity to one's partner),<ref name=mngulati>MN Gulati (2008), Comparative Religions And Philosophies : Anthropomorphism And Divinity, {{ISBN|978-8126909025}}, page 168</ref> and [[Aparigraha]] (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).<ref name=artid />

# [[Niyama]] (The five "observances"): [[Shaucha|Śauca]] (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),<ref>Sharma and Sharma, Indian Political Thought, Atlantic Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8171566785}}, page 19</ref> [[Santosha]] (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),<ref name=ntummers>N Tummers (2009), Teaching Yoga for Life, {{ISBN|978-0-7360-7016-4}}, pages 16–17</ref> [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|Tapas]] (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),<ref>Kaelber, W. O. (1976). "Tapas", Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, 15(4): 343–386</ref> [[Svādhyāya]] (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),<ref>SA Bhagwat (2008), Yoga and Sustainability. Journal of Yoga, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1–14</ref> and [[Ishvarapranidhana|Ishvara-Pranidhana]] (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).<ref name=ntummers />
# [[Asana]]: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
# [[Pranayama]] ("Breath exercises"): ''Prāna'', breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
# [[Pratyahara]] ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
# [[Dharana]] ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
# [[Dhyana in Hinduism|Dhyana]] ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
# [[Samadhi]] ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century, yoga has been one of the six [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox]] philosophical schools (darsanas): traditions which accept the Vedas.{{refn|group=note|For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: {{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|loc="Contents" and pp. 453–487}}.}}{{refn|group=note|For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: {{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=43}}.}}{{sfn|Mallinson|Singleton|2017|pp=16–17}}