Editing Welding (section)

==Costs and trends==
As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and [[electric power|energy]] cost.<ref name="Weman18489">{{harvnb|Weman|2003|pp=184–89}}</ref> Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like [[shielded metal arc welding]] and [[oxyfuel welding]], to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including time spent fitting, welding, and handling the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power demand.<ref name="Weman18489" />

For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are focused on minimizing operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Mechanization and automation are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time. Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding cost.<ref name="Weman18489" />

In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding. In robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and perform the weld<ref>{{harvnb|Lincoln Electric|1994|p=4.5-1}}</ref> and at first, spot welding was its most common application, but robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advances. Other key areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes, such as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, [[residual stress]]es, and a weld's tendency to crack or deform.<ref name="ASM International">{{Cite book
 | author = ASM International
 | year = 2003
 | title = Trends in Welding Research
 | location = Materials Park, Ohio
 | publisher = ASM International
 | isbn = 0-87170-780-2 | pages=995–1005
}}</ref>

The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in the [[steel erector|steel erection]] industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection. Without proper fusion to the base materials provided by sufficient arc time on the weld, a project inspector cannot ensure the effective diameter of the puddle weld therefore he or she cannot guarantee the published load capacities unless they witness the actual installation.<ref>
Gregory L. Snow and W. Samuel Easterling (October 2008) [http://www.us.hilti.com/fstore/holus/LinkFiles/19th_Int_SCCFSS_1.pdf Strength of Arc Spot Welds Made in Single and Multiple Steel Sheets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611210950/http://www.us.hilti.com/fstore/holus/LinkFiles/19th_Int_SCCFSS_1.pdf |date=2014-06-11 }} , Proceedings of the 19th International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Missouri University of Science and Technology.
</ref> This method of puddle welding is common in the United States and Canada for attaching steel sheets to [[bar joist]] and [[structural steel]] members. Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the proper installation of puddle welding on steel construction sites. Currently there is no standard or weld procedure which can ensure the published holding capacity of any unwitnessed connection, but this is under review by the [[American Welding Society]].