Editing Vietnamese language (section)

==Lexicon==
[[File:Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia.png|thumb|Ethnolinguistic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia]]
[[File:VietnameseVocabComparsion.png|thumb|A comparison between Sino-Vietnamese (left) vocabulary with Mandarin and Cantonese pronunciations below and native Vietnamese vocabulary (right).]]

===Austroasiatic origins===
Many early studies hypothesized Vietnamese language-origins to have been either [[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-Dai]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], or [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]. Austroasiatic origins are so far the most tenable to date, with some of the oldest words in Vietnamese being [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] in origin.<ref name="Haudricourt 2017 122–128"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alves|first=Mark|date=2006-02-01|title=Linguistic Research on the Origins of the Vietnamese Language: An Overview|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249988619|journal=Journal of Vietnamese Studies|volume=1|issue=1–2|pages=104–130|doi=10.1525/vs.2006.1.1-2.104}}</ref>

=== Chinese contact===
[[File:Phở.png|thumb|upright=0.5|Old Nôm character for rice noodle soup "phở". The character [[⽶|米]] on the left means "rice" whilst the character on the right "頗" was used to indicate the sound of the word (''[[Pho|phở]]'').]]
Although Vietnamese roots are classified as Austroasiatic, Vietic, and Viet-Muong, [[language contact]] with Chinese heavily influenced the Vietnamese language, causing it to diverge from [[Viet-Muong]] around the 10th to 11th century and become the Vietnamese we know today. For instance, the Vietnamese word ''quản lý,'' meaning "management" (noun) or "manage" (verb), likely descended from the same word as ''guǎnlǐ'' ({{lang|zh|管理}}) in Chinese (also ''kanri'' ({{lang|ja|管理}}, {{lang|ja|かんり}}) in Japanese and ''gwalli'' (''gwan+ri''; {{Korean|hangul=관리|hanja=管理}}) in Korean). Instances of Chinese contact include the historical [[Nam Việt]] (aka [[Nanyue]]) as well as other periods of influence. Besides English and French, which have made some contributions to the Vietnamese language, Japanese loanwords into Vietnamese are also a more recently studied phenomenon.

Modern linguists describe modern Vietnamese having lost many [[Proto-Mon–Khmer language|Proto-Austroasiatic]] phonological and morphological features that original Vietnamese had.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LaPolla|first=Randy J.|date=2010|title="Language Contact and Language Change in the History of the Sinitic Languages."|url=|journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|volume=2|issue=5|pages=6858–6868|doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.036}}</ref> The Chinese influence on Vietnamese corresponds to various periods when Vietnam was under [[Vietnam under Chinese rule|Chinese rule]] and subsequent influence after Vietnam became independent. Early linguists thought that this meant the Vietnamese lexicon had only two influxes of Chinese words, one stemming from the period under actual Chinese rule and a second from afterwards. These words are grouped together as [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary]].

However, according to linguist John Phan, “Annamese Middle Chinese” was already used and spoken in the [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] Valley by the 1st century CE, and its vocabulary significantly fused with the co-existing Proto-Viet-Muong language, the immediate ancestor of Vietnamese. He lists three major classes of Sino-Vietnamese borrowings:<ref>{{Cite web|last=Phan|first=John|date=2013-01-28|title=Lacquered Words: The Evolution Of Vietnamese Under Sinitic Influences From The 1St Century Bce Through The 17Th Century Ce|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/33867|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author1=Phan, John D. |author2=de Sousa, Hilário|date=2016|title=(Paper presented at the International workshop on the history of Colloquial Chinese – written and spoken, Rutgers University, New Brunswick NJ, 11–12 March 2016.)|url=http://hilario.bambooradical.com/downloadables/Phan-de-Sousa-2016-03-11-Rutgers-Southwester-Middle-Chinese.pptx.pdf|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phan|first=John|date=2010|title="Re-Imagining 'Annam': A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact"|url=|journal=Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies|volume=4|pages=3–24|via=}}</ref> Early [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese]] ([[Han dynasty]] ca. 1st century CE and [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] ca. 4th century CE), Late Sino-Vietnamese ([[Tang dynasty]]), and Recent Sino-Vietnamese ([[Ming dynasty]] and afterwards)

=== French era ===
Vietnam became a French protectorate/colonial territory in 1883 (until the [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva Accords]] of 1954), which resulted in significant influence from [[French language in Vietnam|French]] into the Indochina region (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). Examples include:

''"Cà phê"'' in Vietnamese was derived from the French ''café'' (coffee). Yogurt in Vietnamese is ''"sữa chua"'' ({{lit|sour milk}}), but it is also calqued from French (''yaourt'') into Vietnamese (''da ua -'' /j/a ua). ''"Phô mai"'' (cheese) is from the French ''fromage''. [[Musical note]] was borrowed into Vietnamese as ''"nốt"'' or ''"nốt nhạc"'', from the French ''note de musique''. The Vietnamese term for [[steering wheel]] is ''"vô lăng"'', a partial derivation from the French ''volant directionnel''. A [[necktie]] (''cravate'' in French) is rendered into Vietnamese as ''"cà vạt"''.

In addition, modern Vietnamese pronunciations of French names correspond directly to the original French pronunciations (''"Pa-ri"'' for [[Paris]], ''"Mác-xây"'' for [[Marseille]], ''"Boóc-đô"'' for [[Bordeaux]], etc.), whereas pronunciations of other foreign names ([[Chinese language|Chinese]] excluded) are generally derived from English.

=== English ===
Some English words were incorporated into Vietnamese as [[loan words]] - such as "TV", borrowed as "tivi" or just TV, but still officially called ''truyền hình''. Some other borrowings are [[calque]]s, translated into Vietnamese. For example, 'software' is translated into "''phần mềm''" (literally meaning "soft part"). Some scientific terms, such as "biological cell", were derived from chữ Hán. For example, the word ''tế bào'' is {{lang|vi-hant|細胞}} in chữ Hán, whilst other scientific names such as "acetylcholine" are unaltered. Words like "peptide" may be seen as ''peptit''.

=== Japanese ===
Japanese loanwords are a more recently studied phenomenon, with a paper by Nguyễn & Lê (2020) classifying three waves of Japanese influence - with the first two waves being the principal influxes and the third wave coming from the Vietnamese who studied Japanese.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=NGUYEN |first1=Danh Hoang Thanh |last2=LE |first2=Trang Thi Huyen |date=2020-03-31 |title=Japanese Loanwords Adopted into the Vietnamese Language by Vietnamese Students and Temporary Workers |url=https://doi.org/10.15026/94521 |journal=Asian and African Languages and Linguistics |language=en |volume=14 |pages=21 |doi=10.15026/94521}}</ref> The first wave consisted of Kanji words created by Japanese to represent Western concepts that were not readily available in Chinese or Japanese, where by the end of the 19th century they were imported to other Asian languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chung|date=2001|title=Some returned loans, Japanese loanwords in Taiwan Mandarin|journal=Language Change in East Asia|pages=161–179}}</ref> This first influx is called Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origins. For example, the Vietnamese term for "association club", ''câu lạc bộ,'' which was borrowed from Chinese ({{lang|zh|俱乐部}}, [[pinyin]]: ''jùlèbù'', [[jyutping]]: ''keoi1 lok6 bou6''), and then in turn from Japanese ([[kanji]]: {{lang|ja|倶楽部}}, [[katakana]]: {{lang|ja|クラブ}}, [[rōmaji]]: ''kurabu'') which came from the English "''club"'', resulting in indirect borrowing from Japanese.

The second wave was during the brief Japanese occupation of Vietnam from 1940 until 1945. However, Japanese cultural influence in Vietnam started significantly from the 1980s. This newer second wave of Japanese-origin loanwords is distinctive from the Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origin in that they were borrowed directly from Japanese. This vocabulary includes words representative of Japanese culture, such as ''kimono'', ''sumo'', ''samurai'', and ''bonsai'' from modified [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn]] romanisation. These loanwords are coined as "new Japanese loanwords". A significant number of new Japanese loanwords were also of Chinese origin. Sometimes the same concept can be described using both Sino-Vietnamese words of Japanese origin (first wave) and new Japanese loanwords (second wave). For example, judo can be referred to as both ''judo'' and ''nhu đạo'', the Vietnamese reading of 柔道.<ref name=":0" />

=== Modern Chinese influence ===
Some words, such as ''lạp xưởng'' from 臘腸 (Chinese sausage), primarily keep to the [[Cantonese]] pronunciations, having been brought over by southern Chinese migrants, whereas in Hán-Việt, which has been described as being close to [[Middle Chinese]] pronunciation, it is actually pronounced ''lạp trường.'' However, the Cantonese term is the better-known name for [[Chinese sausage]] in Vietnam. Meanwhile, any new terms calqued from Chinese would be based on the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] pronunciation. Additionally, in the southern provinces of Vietnam, the term ''[[:vi:Xúc xắc|xí ngầu]]'' can be used to refer to [[dice]], which may have derived from a [[Cantonese]] or [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] idiom, "xập xí, xập ngầu" (十四, 十五, [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese]]: ''thập tứ, thập ngũ''), literally "fourteen, fifteen" to mean 'uncertain'.

=== Pure Vietnamese words ===
Basic vocabulary in Vietnamese has Proto-Vietic origins. Vietnamese shares a large amount of vocabulary with the Mường languages, a close relative of the Vietnamese language.
[[File:渃𡽫.png|thumb|''nước non'' in the Vietnamese epic poem ''Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca'' (大南國史演歌).]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+Basic lexemes in Vietnamese, Mường, [[May language|May]] and [[Munda languages|Munda]]
!English
!Vietnamese
!Mường
!May
!Comparative
!Proto-Vietic
|-
|zero
|''không''
|''không''
|''kħǒŋ''
|
|N/A, from [[Middle Chinese]] 空 /kʰuŋ/
|-
|one
|''một''
|''mốch, môch''
|''muc''
|''mɨy'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*moːc
|-
|two
|''hai''
|''hal''
|''haːl''
|''bar'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*haːr
|-
|three
|''ba''
|''pa''
|''pa''
|''pe'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*pa
|-
|four
|''bốn''
|''pổn''
|''pon''
|''pon'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*poːnʔ
|-
|five
|''năm''
|''đằm, đăm''
|''dăm''
|''mɔ̃ɽɛ̃'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*ɗam
|-
|six
|''sáu''
|''khảu''
|''plǎų''
|''tuɾui'' ([[Korku language|Korku]])
|*p-ruːʔ
|-
|seven
|''bảy''
|''páy''
|''pǎi''
|''ei'' ([[Korku language|Korku]])
|*pəs
|-
|eight
|''tám''
|''thảm''
|''tʰam''
|''tʰam'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*saːmʔ
|-
|nine
|''chín''
|''chỉn''
|''cin''
|''tin'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*ciːnʔ
|-
|ten
|''mười''/''chục''
|''mườl''
|''mal''/''cuk''
|''gel'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*maːl/*ɟuːk
|-
|you
|''mày''
|''mi''
|''ʔami''
|''amən'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*miː
|-
|rain
|''mưa''
|''mưa''
|''kuma̤''
|''gama'' ([[Mundari language|Mundari]])
|*k-ma
|-
|wind
|''gió''
|''xỏ''
|''kuzɔ''
|''hɔjɔ'' ([[Mundari language|Mundari]])
|*k-jɔːʔ ~ *kʰjɔːʔ
|-
|mountain
|''rú''
|''khũ''
|''ɓlu''
|''bɘru'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*b-ruːʔː
|-
|young
|''non''
|''non''
|''kunɔn''
|''kɔnɔn'' ([[Kharia language|Kharia]])
|*k-nɔːn
|-
|water
|''nác > nước''
|''đác''
|''dak''
|''daʔa'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*ɗaːk
|-
|cold
|''lạnh''
|''lẽnh''
|''tabat/l͎uɓat ''
|''raŋga'' ([[Kharia language|Kharia]])
|*nl͎eŋ
|-
|smoke
|''mù''/''khói''
|''mù''/''khỏi''
|''hako''
|''poro'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*ɓɔːjʔ
|-
|leaf
|''lá''
|''lả''
|''ʔula''
|''ola'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*s-laːʔ
|-
|rice
|''gạo''
|''cảo''
|''tako''
|''caole'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*r-koːʔ
|-
|meat
|''ñśic > thịt''
|''thit''
|''cit''
|''sissid'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*-siːt
|-
|fish
|''cá''
|''cả''
|''ʔaka''
|''hako'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*ʔa-kaːʔ
|-
|rat
|''chuột''
|''chuột''
|''kune''
|''gubu'' ([[Bonda language|Bonda]])
|*k-ɟɔːt
|-
|pig
|''cúi''
|''củi''
|''kul''
|''sukri'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*kuːrʔ
|-
|fly (n.)
|''ruồi''
|''ròi''
|''muɽɔi̯''
|''aroi'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*m-rɔːj
|-
|hold
|''cầm''
|''cầm''
|''kadap''
|''kum-si'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*nkɘm
|-
|yawn
|''ngáp''
|''ngáp''
|''puŋoh''
|''aŋgɔ'b'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*s-ŋaːp
|-
|to stab
|''chọc''
|''choc''
|''catʔ''
|''suj'' ([[Sora language|Sora]])
|*ncuk(i)
|-
|steal
|''trộm (đồ)''
|''lỗm''
|''lom''
|''kombro'' ([[Santali language|Santali]])
|*t.luːmʔ
|}

Other compound words, such as nước non (chữ Nôm: 渃𡽫, "country/nation", lit. "water and mountains"), appear to be of purely Vietnamese origin and used to be inscribed in chữ Nôm characters (compounded, self-coined Chinese characters) but are now written in the Vietnamese alphabet.