Editing Unemployment (section)

===Costs===
====Individual====
[[File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''Migrant Mother'', photograph by [[Dorothea Lange]], 1936]]
Unemployed individuals are unable to earn money to meet financial obligations. Failure to pay mortgage payments or to pay rent may lead to [[homelessness]] through [[foreclosure]] or [[eviction]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/suburban-homeless-rising-tide-of-families-16-02-2010/ |title=Suburban Homeless: Rising Tide of Families |work=CBS News |date=16 February 2010 |access-date=30 May 2010 |archive-date=19 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219010200/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/02/16/national/main6213988.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Across the United States the growing ranks of people made homeless in the foreclosure crisis are generating [[tent cities]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/26/tent-city-california-recession-economy |title=U.S. tent cities highlight new realities as recession wears on |newspaper=The Guardian |date=26 March 2009 |location=London |first=Oliver |last=Burkeman}}</ref>

Unemployment increases susceptibility to [[cardiovascular disease]], [[somatization]], [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[Depression (mood)|depression]], and [[suicide]]. In addition, unemployed people have higher rates of medication use, poor diet, physician visits, [[tobacco smoking]], [[alcoholic beverage]] consumption, drug use, and lower rates of exercise.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url = http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781380|title = Mission Critical: Getting Vets With PTSD Back to Work|last1 = Meade|first1 = Barbara J.|date = 29 March 2013|work = NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health|last2 = Glenn|first2 = Margaret K.|last3 = Wirth|first3 = Oliver|publisher = Medscape & NIOSH}}</ref> According to a study published in Social Indicator Research, even those who tend to be optimistic find it difficult to look on the bright side of things when unemployed. Using interviews and data from German participants aged 16 to 94, including individuals coping with the stresses of real life and not just a volunteering student population, the researchers determined that even optimists struggled with being unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/545782/ |title=Even Optimists Get the Blues When Pink-slipped |work=Newswise |access-date=27 October 2008 }}</ref>

In 1979, [[M. Harvey Brenner]] found that for every 10% increase in the number of unemployed, there is an increase of 1.2% in total mortality, a 1.7% increase in [[cardiovascular disease]], 1.3% more [[cirrhosis]] cases, 1.7% more suicides, 4.0% more arrests, and 0.8% more assaults reported to the police.<ref>{{cite book |first=M. Harvey |last=Brenner |chapter=Influence of the Social Environment on Psychology: The Historical Perspective |title=Stress and Mental Disorder |editor-first=James E. |editor-last=Barrett |location=New York |publisher=Raven Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-89004-384-4 }}</ref><ref name=b>{{cite web|author=Richard Ashley|year=2007|url=http://ashleymac.econ.vt.edu/ashley/3204/brenner.pdf|title=Fact sheet on the impact of unemployment|publisher=Virginia Tech, Department of Economics|access-date=11 October 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025150953/http://ashleymac.econ.vt.edu/ashley/3204/brenner.pdf|archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref>

A study by [[Christopher Ruhm]] in 2000 on the effect of recessions on health found that several measures of health actually improve during recessions.<ref name=Ruhm>{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Ruhm |title=Are Recessions Good for Your Health? |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |year=2000 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=617–650 |doi=10.1162/003355300554872 |s2cid=51729569 |url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Ruhm_Are_2000.pdf }}</ref> As for the impact of an economic downturn on crime, during the [[Great Depression]], the crime rate did not decrease. The unemployed in the US often use [[welfare spending|welfare]] programs such as [[Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program|food stamps]] or accumulating [[debt]] because unemployment insurance in the US generally does not replace most of the income that was received on the job, and one cannot receive such aid indefinitely.

Not everyone suffers equally from unemployment. In a prospective study of 9,570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boyce|first=Christopher J.|author2=Wood, Alex M. |author3=Brown, Gordon D.A. |title=The dark side of conscientiousness: Conscientious people experience greater drops in life satisfaction following unemployment|journal=Journal of Research in Personality |year=2010 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=535–539 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2010.05.001 }}</ref> The authors suggested that may because of conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. There is also the possibility of reverse causality from poor health to unemployment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bockerman|first=Petri|author2=Ilmakunnas, Pekka |title=Unemployment and self-assessed health: evidence from panel data|journal=Health Economics |year=2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=161–179|doi=10.1002/hec.1361 |pmid=18536002 |url=http://www.petribockerman.fi/bockerman%26ilmakunnas_une_2009.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.719.5903}}</ref>

Some researchers hold that many of the low-income jobs are not really a better option than unemployment with a [[welfare state]], with its [[unemployment insurance]] benefits. However, since it is difficult or impossible to get unemployment insurance benefits without having worked in the past, those jobs and unemployment are more complementary than they are substitutes. (They are often held short-term, either by students or by those trying to gain experience; turnover in most low-paying jobs is high.)

Another cost for the unemployed is that the combination of unemployment, lack of financial resources, and social responsibilities may push unemployed workers to take jobs that do not fit their skills or allow them to use their talents. Unemployment can cause [[underemployment]], and fear of job loss can spur psychological anxiety. As well as anxiety, it can cause depression, lack of confidence, and huge amounts of stress, which is increased when the unemployed are faced with health issues, poverty, and lack of relational support.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Unemployment and underemployment: A narrative analysis about loss|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236855506|journal = Journal of Vocational Behavior|pages = 256–265|volume = 82|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.jvb.2013.02.005|first1 = David L.|last1 = Blustein|first2 = Saliha|last2 = Kozan|first3 = Alice|last3 = Connors-Kellgren|year = 2013}}</ref>

Another personal cost of unemployment is its impact on relationships. A 2008 study from Covizzi, which examined the relationship between unemployment and divorce, found that the rate of divorce is greater for couples when one partner is unemployed.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Covizzi
| first = Ilaria
| date = 1 July 2008
| title = Does Union Dissolution Lead to Unemployment? A Longitudinal Study of Health and Risk of Unemployment for Women and Men Undergoing Separation
| journal = European Sociological Review
| language = en
| volume = 24
| issue = 3
| pages = 347–361
| doi = 10.1093/esr/jcn006
| issn = 0266-7215
}}</ref> However, a more recent study has found that some couples often stick together in "unhappy" or "unhealthy" marriages when they are unemployed to buffer financial costs.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Amato
| first1 = Paul R.
| last2 = Beattie
| first2 = Brett
| date = 1 May 2011
| title = Does the unemployment rate affect the divorce rate? An analysis of state data 1960–2005
| journal = Social Science Research
| volume = 40
| issue = 3
| pages = 705–715
| doi = 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.12.012
}}</ref> A 2014 study by Van der Meer found that the stigma that comes from being unemployed affects personal well-being, especially for men, who often feel as though their masculine identities are threatened by unemployment.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Meer
| first = Peter H. van der
| date = 21 November 2012
| title = Gender, Unemployment and Subjective Well-Being: Why Being Unemployed Is Worse for Men than for Women
| journal = Social Indicators Research
| language = en
| volume = 115
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–44
| doi = 10.1007/s11205-012-0207-5
| s2cid = 145056657
| issn = 0303-8300
}}</ref>

====Gender and age====
{{anchor|Effects of unemployment on men}}Unemployment can also bring personal costs in relation to gender. One study found that women are more likely to experience unemployment than men and that they are less likely to move from temporary positions to permanent positions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Fang
| first1 = Tony
| last2 = MacPhail
| first2 = Fiona
| date = 27 November 2007
| title = Transitions from Temporary to Permanent Work in Canada: Who Makes the Transition and Why?
| journal = Social Indicators Research
| language = en
| volume = 88
| issue = 1
| pages = 51–74
| doi = 10.1007/s11205-007-9210-7
| issn = 0303-8300
| hdl = 10315/6293
| s2cid = 154555810
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref> Another study on gender and unemployment found that men, however, are more likely to experience greater stress, depression, and adverse effects from unemployment, largely stemming from the perceived threat to their role as breadwinner.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Michniewicz
| first1 = Kenneth S.
| last2 = Vandello
| first2 = Joseph A.
| last3 = Bosson
| first3 = Jennifer K.
| date = 19 January 2014
| title = Men's (Mis)Perceptions of the Gender Threatening Consequences of Unemployment
| journal = Sex Roles
| language = en
| volume = 70
| issue = 3–4
| pages = 88–97
| doi = 10.1007/s11199-013-0339-3
| s2cid = 144321429
| issn = 0360-0025
}}</ref> The study found that men expect themselves to be viewed as "less manly" after a job loss than they actually are and so they engage in compensating behaviors, such as [[financial risk]]-taking and increased assertiveness. Unemployment has been linked to extremely adverse effects on men's [[mental health]].<ref>{{citation|title=Facing the Challenge: The Impact of Recession and Unemployment on Men's Health in Ireland|date=June 2011|url=http://www.mhfi.org/IPHreport2011.pdf|publisher=Institute of Public Health in Ireland}}</ref> Professor Ian Hickie of the [[University of Sydney]] said that evidence showed that men have more restricted social networks than women and that men have are heavily work-based. Therefore, the loss of a job for men means the loss of a whole set of social connections as well. That loss can then lead to men becoming [[social isolation|socially isolated]] very quickly.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jun/25/loneliness-a-key-risk-factor-for-suicide-among-australian-men-study Social isolation a key risk factor for suicide among Australian men – study]. ''The Guardian''. Author - Melissa Davey. Published 25 June 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2018.</ref> An Australian study on the mental health impacts of graduating during an economic downturn found that the negative mental health outcomes are greater and more scarring for men than women. The effect was particularly pronounced for those with vocational or secondary education.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Ang |last2=Toll |first2=Mathew |title=Effects of graduating during economic downturns on mental health |journal=Annals of Epidemiology |date=2021 |volume=55 |issue=55 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.12.005| issn=1047-2797 |pmid=33359536 |s2cid=229693054 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1047279720304348}}</ref>

Costs of unemployment also vary depending on age. The young and the old are the two largest age groups currently experiencing unemployment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Kaberi Gayen
| last2 = Ronald McQuaid
| last3 = Robert Raeside
| date = 22 June 2010
| title = Social networks, age cohorts and employment
| journal = International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy
| volume = 30
| issue = 5/6
| pages = 219–238
| doi = 10.1108/01443331011054208
| issn = 0144-333X
}}</ref> A 2007 study from Jacob and Kleinert found that young people (ages 18 to 24) who have fewer resources and limited work experiences are more likely to be unemployed.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Jacob
| first1 = Marita
| last2 = Kleinert
| first2 = Corinna
| date = 1 April 2008
| title = Does Unemployment Help or Hinder Becoming Independent? The Role of Employment Status for Leaving the Parental Home
| journal = European Sociological Review
| language = en
| volume = 24
| issue = 2
| pages = 141–153
| doi = 10.1093/esr/jcm038
| issn = 0266-7215
| hdl = 10419/31878
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref> Other researchers have found that today's high school seniors place a lower value on work than those in the past, which is likely because they recognize the limited availability of jobs.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Wray-Lake
| first1 = Laura
| last2 = Syvertsen
| first2 = Amy K.
| last3 = Briddell
| first3 = Laine
| last4 = Osgood
| first4 = D. Wayne
| last5 = Flanagan
| first5 = Constance A.
| date = 1 September 2011
| title = Exploring the Changing Meaning of Work for American High School Seniors From 1976 to 2005
| journal = Youth & Society
| language = en
| volume = 43
| issue = 3
| pages = 1110–1135
| doi = 10.1177/0044118X10381367
| issn = 0044-118X
| pmc = 3199574
| pmid = 22034546
}}</ref> At the other end of the age spectrum, studies have found that older individuals have more barriers than younger workers to employment, require stronger social networks to acquire work, and are also less likely to move from temporary to permanent positions.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2"/> Additionally, some older people see [[age discrimination]] as the reason for them not getting hired.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = McVittie
| first1 = Chris
| last2 = McKinlay
| first2 = Andy
| last3 = Widdicombe
| first3 = Sue
| title = Passive and active non-employment: Age, employment and the identities of older non-working people
| journal = Journal of Aging Studies
| volume = 22
| issue = 3
| pages = 248–255
| doi = 10.1016/j.jaging.2007.04.003
| year = 2008
}}</ref>

====Social====
[[File:Dyfiharipadarally (32).jpg|thumb|Demonstration against unemployment in [[Kerala]], [[South India]], [[India]] on 27 January 2004]]
An economy with high unemployment is not using all of the resources, specifically labour, available to it. Since it is operating below its [[production possibility frontier]], it could have higher output if all of the workforce were usefully employed. However, there is a tradeoff between economic efficiency and unemployment: if all [[frictional unemployment|frictionally unemployed]] accepted the first job that they were offered, they would be likely to be operating at below their skill level, reducing the economy's efficiency.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_1st_Edn_Ch22/PThy_1st_Edn_Chap_22.html |title=Price Theory: First Edition, Chapter 22: Inflation and Unemployment |publisher=Daviddfriedman.com |access-date=27 July 2011}}</ref>

During a long period of unemployment, workers can lose their skills, causing a loss of [[human capital]]. Being unemployed can also reduce the [[life expectancy]] of workers by about seven years.<ref name="autogenerated2"/>

High unemployment can encourage [[xenophobia]] and [[protectionism]] since workers fear that foreigners are stealing their jobs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steininger |first1=M. |last2=Rotte |first2=R. |year=2009 |title=Crime, unemployment, and xenophobia?: An ecological analysis of right-wing election results in Hamburg, 1986–2005 |journal=Jahrbuch für Regionalwissenschaft |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=29–63 |doi=10.1007/s10037-008-0032-0 |s2cid=161133018 }}</ref> Efforts to preserve existing jobs of domestic and native workers include legal barriers against "outsiders" who want jobs, obstacles to immigration, and/or [[tariff]]s and similar [[trade barrier]]s against foreign competitors.

High unemployment can also cause social problems such as crime. If people have less disposable income than before, it is very likely that crime levels within the economy will increase.

A 2015 study published in ''[[The Lancet]]'', estimates that unemployment causes 45,000 suicides a year globally.<ref>Sarah Boseley (11 February 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/feb/11/unemployment-causes-45000-suicides-a-year-worldwide-finds-study Unemployment causes 45,000 suicides a year worldwide, finds study]. ''[[The Guardian]].'' Retrieved 13 February 2015.</ref>

====Sociopolitical====
[[File:Unemployment in Germany 2003 by states.png|thumb|Unemployment rate in [[Germany]] in 2003 by [[states of Germany|states]]]]
High levels of unemployment can be causes of civil unrest,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sulich|first=Adam|year=2016|title=The young people's labour market and crisis of integration in European Union |url=https://www.academia.edu/25508981 |journal=International Conference on European Integration |volume=2 |pages=926–934}}</ref> in some cases leading to revolution, particularly [[totalitarianism]]. The fall of the [[Weimar Republic]] in 1933 and [[Machtergreifung|Adolf Hitler's rise to power]], which culminated in [[World War II]] and the deaths of tens of millions and the destruction of much of the physical capital of Europe, is attributed to the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, notably a high unemployment rate<ref name="leopold">[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/les-leopold/why-are-we-afraid-to-crea_b_487041.html Why are We Afraid to Create the Jobs We Need?], Les Leopold, 5 March 2010</ref> of above 20%; see Great Depression in Central Europe for details.

However the [[hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic]] is not directly blamed for the Nazi rise. Hyperinflation occurred primarily in 1921 to 1923, the year of Hitler's [[Beer Hall Putsch]]. Although hyperinflation has been blamed for damaging the credibility of democratic institutions, the Nazis did not assume government until 1933, ten years after the hyperinflation but in the midst of high unemployment.

Rising unemployment has traditionally been regarded by the public and the media in any country as a key guarantor of electoral defeat for any government that oversees it. That was very much the consensus in the United Kingdom until 1983, when Thatcher's Conservative government won a [[1983 United Kingdom general election|landslide in the general election]], despite overseeing a rise in unemployment from 1.5 million to 3.2 million since the [[1979 United Kingdom general election|1979 election]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15276765 |work=BBC News | title=Whatever happened to full employment? | date=13 October 2011}}</ref>