Editing Surgery (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of surgery|Prehistoric medicine|History of general anesthesia}}
[[Image:Edwin Smith Papyrus v2.jpg|thumb|Plates VI and VII of the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], an Egyptian surgical treatise]]

===Trepanation===
Surgical treatments date back to the prehistoric era. The oldest for which there is evidence is [[trepanation]],<ref>{{Cite book |author=Capasso, Luigi |year=2002 |title=Principi di storia della patologia umana: corso di storia della medicina per gli studenti della Facoltà di medicina e chirurgia e della Facoltà di scienze infermieristiche |location=Rome |publisher=SEU |isbn=978-88-87753-65-3 |oclc=50485765 |language=it}}</ref> in which a hole is [[drill]]ed or scraped into the [[Human skull|skull]], thus exposing the [[dura mater]] in order to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure.

===Ancient Egypt===
Prehistoric surgical techniques are seen in [[Ancient Egypt]], where a [[Human mandible|mandible]] dated to approximately 2650 BC shows two perforations just below the root of the first [[molar (tooth)|molar]], indicating the draining of an [[Tooth abscess|abscessed tooth]]. Surgical texts from ancient Egypt date back about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today,<ref name=cossurg>{{cite book| vauthors = Shiffman M |title=Cosmetic Surgery: Art and Techniques|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-21837-8|page=20|year=2012}}</ref> and used sutures to close wounds.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sullivan R | title = The identity and work of the ancient Egyptian surgeon | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 89 | issue = 8 | pages = 467–473 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8795503 | pmc = 1295891 | doi = 10.1177/014107689608900813 }}</ref> Infections were treated with honey.<ref>James P. Allen, ''The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt''. (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005) 72.</ref>

===India===
9,000-year-old skeletal remains of a prehistoric individual from the [[Indus River Valley|Indus River valley]] show evidence of teeth having been drilled.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4882968.stm | work=BBC News | title=Stone age man used dentist drill | date=6 April 2006 | access-date=24 May 2010 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422144638/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4882968.stm | archive-date=22 April 2009 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' is one of the oldest known surgical texts and its period is usually placed in the first millennium BCE.<ref name="singhguide">{{cite book |title=Banaras Region: A Spiritual and Cultural Guide | vauthors = Singh PB, Rana PS |year=2002 |publisher=Indica Books |location=Varanasi |isbn=978-81-86569-24-5 |page=31 }}</ref> It describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures for various forms of cosmetic surgery, [[plastic surgery]] and [[rhinoplasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2002;volume=48;issue=1;spage=76;epage=8;aulast=Rana;type=0|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301014540/http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2002;volume=48;issue=1;spage=76;epage=8;aulast=Rana|url-status=dead|title=History of plastic surgery in India.|first1=R. E.|last1=Rana|first2=B. S.|last2=Arora|date=1 January 2002|archivedate=1 March 2009|journal=Journal of Postgraduate Medicine|volume=48|issue=1|pages=76–78|via=www.jpgmonline.com|pmid=12082339}}</ref>

=== Sri Lanka ===
In 1982 archaeologists were able to find significant evidence when the ancient land, called 'Alahana Pirivena' situated in Polonnaruwa, with ruins, was excavated. In that place ruins of an ancient hospital emerged. The hospital building was 147.5 feet in width and 109.2 feet in length. The instruments which were used for complex surgeries were there among the things discovered from the place, including forceps, scissors, probes, lancets, and scalpels. The instruments discovered may be dated to 11th century AD.<ref>Somadewa, Raj; Rev. Deerananda, Hanguranketha; Kannangara, Padmasiri; Senadhiraja, Anusha; Gunawardhana, W. S. Shiromala (2014). ''[http://www.edupub.gov.lk/Administrator/English/10/history%2010%20E/histoy%20G-10%20E.pdf History - Grade 10]'' (PDF). Translated by Bandara, A.B.S. Aloka. Educational Publications Department. {{ISBN|978-955-25-0663-5}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Surgery in an ancient kingdom |url=https://www.sundaytimes.lk/111030/Plus/plus_01.html |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=www.sundaytimes.lk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aluwihare |first=Arjuna PR |date=3 August 2021 |title=Surgical Instruments at the Alahana Parivena Hospital in Polonnaruwa |url=https://www.clinicsinsurgery.com/open-access/surgical-instruments-at-the-alahana-parivena-hospital-in-polonnaruwa-7783.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004220102/https://www.clinicsinsurgery.com/open-access/surgical-instruments-at-the-alahana-parivena-hospital-in-polonnaruwa-7783.pdf |archive-date=October 4, 2022 |access-date=September 5, 2023 |website=Clinics in Surgery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Uragoda |first=C. G. |title=Medicine and Surgery |url=https://dl.nsf.gov.lk/bitstream/handle/1/5517/VIDU%2019_1_9.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=National Science Foundation}}</ref>

===Ancient and Medieval Greece===
[[Image:Hippocrates rubens.jpg|thumb|160px|Bust of [[Hippocrates]], who advocated for surgery to be performed by [[Specialist doctor|specialists]].]]

In [[ancient Greece]], temples dedicated to the healer-god [[Asclepius]], known as ''Asclepieia'' ({{langx|el|Ασκληπιεία}}, sing. ''Asclepieion'' ''Ασκληπιείον''), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.<ref>Risse, G.B. ''Mending bodies, saving souls: a history of hospitals.'' Oxford University Press, 1990. p. 56 [https://books.google.com/books?id=htLTvdz5HDEC&q=History+of+Hospital%2BAsclepieion&pg=PA56]</ref> In the Asclepieion of [[Epidaurus]], some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place.<ref name=books.google.com /> The Greek [[Galen]] was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations&nbsp;– including brain and eye surgery&nbsp;– that were not tried again for almost two millennia. [[Hippocrates]] stated in the [[Hippocratic Oath|oath]] ({{Circa|400 BCE}}) "I will not use the knife, even upon those suffering from stones, but I will leave this to those who are trained in this craft."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greek Medicine |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/topics/greek-medicine/index.html |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=www.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref>

Researchers from the [[Adelphi University]] discovered in the Paliokastro on [[Thasos]] ten skeletal remains, four women and six men, who were buried between the fourth and seventh centuries A.D. Their bones illuminated their physical activities, traumas, and even a complex form of brain surgery. According to the researchers: "The very serious trauma cases sustained by both males and females had been treated surgically or orthopedically by a very experienced physician/surgeon with great training in trauma care. We believe it to have been a military physician". The researchers were impressed by the complexity of the brain surgical operation.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-04/au-ard040720.php| title = Adelphi researcher discovers early, complex brain surgery in ancient Greece| access-date = 10 April 2020| archive-date = 10 April 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200410115723/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-04/au-ard040720.php| url-status = dead}}</ref>

In 1991 at the Polystylon fort in Greece, researchers discovered the head of a Byzantine warrior of the 14th century. Analysis of the lower jaw revealed that a surgery has been performed, when the warrior was alive, to the jaw which had been badly fractured and it tied back together until it healed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/byzantine-warrior-fractured-jaw|title=Byzantine warrior with gold-threaded jaw unearthed in Greece|author1=Laura Geggel|date=29 September 2021|website=livescience.com}}</ref>

===Islamic world===
During the [[Islamic Golden Age]], largely based upon [[Paul of Aegina]]'s ''Pragmateia'', the writings of [[Albucasis]] (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian-Arab]] physician and scientist who practiced in the Zahra suburb of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], were influential.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Zimmerman LM, Veith I |title=Great Ideas in the History of Surgery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABbCI7z4UwMC&pg=PA179|access-date=3 December 2012|year=1993|publisher=Norman Publishing|isbn=978-0-930405-53-3|pages=82–83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Pormann PE |title=The Oriental Tradition of Paul of Aegina's Pragmateia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SszCRRlW5asC|access-date=6 December 2012|year=2004|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-13757-8|pages=300–04}}</ref> Al-Zahrawi specialized in curing disease by [[cauterization]]. He invented several [[surgical instruments]] for purposes such as inspection of the interior of the [[urethra]] and for removing foreign bodies from the throat, the ear, and other body organs. He was also the first to illustrate the various [[cannulae]] and to treat [[wart]]s with an iron tube and caustic metal{{clarify|date=August 2019}} as a boring instrument. He describes what is thought to be the first attempt at reduction [[mammaplasty]] for the management of [[gynaecomastia]]<ref name=Anzjournal>{{citation| vauthors = Ahmad Z |title=Al-Zahrawi – The Father of Surgery|journal=ANZ Journal of Surgery|year=2007|volume=77|issue=Suppl. 1|doi=10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x|pages=A83|s2cid=57308997}}</ref> and the first [[mastectomy]] to treat [[breast cancer]].<ref name=aramco0816>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicity.org/8597/pioneer-muslim-physicians/|title=Pioneer Muslim Physicians|work=IslamiCity |date=9 December 2012 |publisher=aramcoworld.com|access-date=20 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321170835/http://www.islamicity.org/8597/pioneer-muslim-physicians/|archive-date=2017-03-21|url-status=live}}{{better source needed|date=July 2017}}</ref> He is credited with the performance of the first [[thyroidectomy]].<ref>Ignjatovic M: Overview of the history of thyroid surgery. Acta Chir Iugosl 2003; 50: 9–36.</ref> Al-Zahrawi pioneered techniques of [[neurosurgery]] and [[neurological]] diagnosis, treating [[head injuries]], [[skull fractures]], [[spinal injuries]], [[hydrocephalus]], [[subdural effusion]]s and [[headache]]. The first clinical description of an operative procedure for [[hydrocephalus]] was given by Al-Zahrawi, who clearly describes the evacuation of superficial [[intracranial]] fluid in [[hydrocephalic]] children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aschoff A, Kremer P, Hashemi B, Kunze S | title = The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment | journal = Neurosurgical Review | volume = 22 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 67–93; discussion 94–95 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10547004 | doi = 10.1007/s101430050035 | s2cid = 10077885 }}</ref>

===Early modern Europe===
[[File:Augenoperation 1195.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Illuminated miniature]] of 12th-century eye surgery in Italy]]
[[File:Ambroise Paré 1573.jpg|thumb|160px|Ambroise Paré (c. 1510–1590), father of modern military surgery.]]
In [[Europe]], the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as [[University of Montpellier|Montpellier]], [[University of Padua|Padua]] and [[University of Bologna|Bologna]] were particularly renowned. In the 12th century, [[Rogerius (physician)|Rogerius Salernitanus]] composed his ''Chirurgia'', laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. [[Barber surgeon|Barber-surgeons]] generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Himmelmann L | title = [From barber to surgeon- the process of professionalization] | journal = Svensk Medicinhistorisk Tidskrift | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–87 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18548946 }}</ref> Basic surgical principles for asepsis etc., are known as [[Halsteads principles]].

There were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. The professor of anatomy at the [[University of Padua]], [[Andreas Vesalius]], was a pivotal figure in the [[Renaissance]] transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of [[Galen]], to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. In his anatomic treaties ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'', he exposed the many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

The second figure of importance in this era was [[Ambroise Paré]] (sometimes spelled "Ambrose"<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levine JM | title = Historical notes on pressure ulcers: the cure of Ambrose Paré | journal = Decubitus | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 23–4, 26 | date = March 1992 | pmid = 1558689 }}</ref>), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil; an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of [[egg yolk]], [[rose oil]] and [[turpentine]]. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective [[ligature (medicine)|ligation]] of the [[blood vessel]]s during an [[amputation]].{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Modern surgery===
The discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in Europe. An important figure in this regard was the Scottish surgical scientist, [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]], generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFAsAAAAYAAJ|title=The Knife Man: The Extraordinary Life and Times of John Hunter, Father of Modern Surgery| vauthors = Moore W |year=2005|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|access-date=7 February 2013|isbn=978-0-7679-1652-3}}</ref> He brought an [[empiricism|empirical]] and [[experiment]]al approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others, he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

He greatly advanced knowledge of [[venereal disease]] and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the [[Achilles tendon]] and a more effective method for applying ligature of the [[arteries]] in case of an [[aneurysm]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://library.uthscsa.edu/2010/12/john-hunter-%E2%80%9Cthe-father-of-scientific-surgery%E2%80%9D-resources-from-the-collection-of-the-p-i-nixon-library/ |title=John Hunter: "the father of scientific surgery": Resources from the collection of the P.I. Nixon Library |access-date=17 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026210110/http://library.uthscsa.edu/2010/12/john-hunter-%E2%80%9Cthe-father-of-scientific-surgery%E2%80%9D-resources-from-the-collection-of-the-p-i-nixon-library/ |archive-date=26 October 2013 }}</ref> He was also one of the first to understand the importance of [[pathology]], the danger of the spread of [[infection]] and how the problem of [[inflammation]] of the wound, bone [[lesion]]s and even [[tuberculosis]] often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/news/print/hematology-oncology/%7BC9A8CA57-FA27-4432-AADF-D8EE0671428F%7D/John-Hunter-Founder-of-Scientific-Surgery |title=John Hunter: 'Founder of Scientific Surgery' |access-date=17 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214210131/http://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/news/print/hematology-oncology/%7Bc9a8ca57-fa27-4432-aadf-d8ee0671428f%7D/john-hunter-founder-of-scientific-surgery |archive-date=14 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Other important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included [[Percival Pott]] (1713–1788) who described [[Pott disease|tuberculosis on the spine]] and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental [[carcinogen]] (he noticed a connection between [[chimney sweep]]'s exposure to soot and their high incidence of [[Chimney sweeps' carcinoma|scrotal cancer]]). [[Astley Paston Cooper]] (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta, and [[James Syme]] (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the [[ankle joint]] and successfully carried out the first [[Hemipelvectomy|hip disarticulation]].

Modern [[pain]] control through [[anesthesia]] was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the advent of [[anesthesia]], surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient [[suffering]].  This also meant that operations were largely restricted to [[amputation]]s and external growth removals. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as [[diethyl ether|ether]], first used by the American surgeon [[Crawford Long]], and [[chloroform]], discovered by Scottish obstetrician [[James Young Simpson]] and later pioneered by [[John Snow (physician)|John Snow]], physician to [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Gordon ML |title=Sir James Young Simpson and Chloroform (1811–1870) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYer05UwKBYC|access-date=11 November 2011|year=2002|publisher=The Minerva Group, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4102-0291-8 |page=108}}</ref> In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body.  In addition, the discovery of [[muscle relaxant]]s such as [[curare]] allowed for safer applications.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

====Infection and antisepsis====
The introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] doctor [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths; however, the [[Royal Society]] dismissed his advice.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
[[File:Joseph Lister2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], pioneer of [[Antiseptic#Usage in surgery|antiseptic surgery]]]]
Until the pioneering work of British surgeon [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]] in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "[[Miasma theory of disease|miasma]]") was responsible for [[infections]] in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's [[wound]]s were not available.<ref name="storyof medicine">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKkCwqDEI9QC&q=%22good+old+surgical+stink%22&pg=PA420 | title=The Story of Medicine | publisher=Kessinger Publishing | vauthors=Robinson V | page=420 | isbn=978-1-4191-5431-7 | year=2005 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Lister became aware of the work of French [[chemist]] [[Louis Pasteur]], who showed that rotting and [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] could occur under [[Anaerobic infection|anaerobic conditions]] if [[micro-organisms]] were present.  Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the [[micro-organisms]] responsible for [[gangrene]]: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to [[chemical solutions]]. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop [[antiseptic]] techniques for wounds.  As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying [[carbolic acid]] on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in ''[[The Lancet]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lister J | title = On a new method of treating compound fracture, abscess, etc.: with observations on the conditions of suppuration. | journal = The Lancet | date = March 1867 | volume = 89 | issue = 2272 | pages = 326–329 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)51192-2 }}<br>Five articles running from:<br>Volume 89, Issue 2272, 16 March 1867, pp. 326–29 (Originally published as Volume 1, Issue 2272)<br>
to:<br>Volume 90, Issue 2291, 27 July 1867, pp. 95–96 Originally published as Volume 2, Issue 2291</ref> Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the ''[[Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery]]'', which was reprinted in the ''British Medical Journal''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lister J | title = On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 351 | pages = 246–248 | date = September 1867 | pmid = 20744875 | pmc = 2310614 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.351.246 }}. Reprinted in {{cite journal | vauthors = Lister BJ | title = The classic: On the antiseptic principle in the practice of surgery. 1867 | journal = Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research | volume = 468 | issue = 8 | pages = 2012–2016 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20361283 | pmc = 2895849 | doi = 10.1007/s11999-010-1320-x }}</ref><ref name=FUSourcebook>{{cite web| vauthors = Lister J |title=Modern History Sourcebook: Joseph Lister (1827–1912): Antiseptic Principle Of The Practice Of Surgery, 1867|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1867lister.asp|publisher=Fordham University|access-date=2 September 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107163352/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1867lister.asp|archive-date=7 November 2011|df=dmy-all}}Modernized version of text</ref><ref name=PG-JL>{{Cite book| vauthors = Lister J |title=On the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery by Baron Joseph Lister|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23968|publisher=Project Gutenberg|access-date=2 September 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009065204/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23968|archive-date=9 October 2011|df=dmy-all|date=December 2007}} E-text, audio at Project Gutenberg.</ref> His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Lister continued to develop improved methods of [[antisepsis]] and [[asepsis]] when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister introduced the Steam Steriliser to [[sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]] equipment, instituted rigorous hand washing and later implemented the wearing of rubber gloves. These three crucial advances – the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment – laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.

The use of [[X-rays]] as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German [[physicist]] [[Wilhelm Röntgen]]. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated [[photographic plate]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Image:Acquapendente - Operationes chirurgicae, 1685 - 2984755.tif|[[Hieronymus Fabricius]], ''Operationes chirurgicae'', 1685
File:John Syng Dorsey.jpg|John Syng Dorsey wrote the first American textbook on surgery
File:1753 Traversi Operation anagoria.JPG| An operation in 1753, painted by [[Gaspare Traversi]].
</gallery>