Editing Sumer (section)

===Language and writing===
{{Main|Sumerian language|Cuneiform}}
{{further|History of writing}}
[[File:P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_écriture_précunéiforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg|thumb|A tablet with pictographic pre-cuneiform writing. Late 4th millennium BC, limestone. Height: 4.5 cm, width: 4.3 cm, depth: 2.4 cm. The [[Louvre]]]]
The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of [[clay tablet]]s written in [[cuneiform script]]. Sumerian writing is considered to be a great milestone in the development of humanity's ability to not only create historical records but also in creating pieces of literature, both in the form of poetic epics and stories as well as prayers and laws.

Although the writing system was first [[hieroglyphic]] using [[ideogram]]s, [[logogram|logosyllabic]] cuneiform soon followed.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

Triangular or wedge-shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, including personal and business letters, receipts, [[lexical lists]], laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. Full libraries of clay tablets have been found. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects, like statues or bricks, are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes in training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant.

A prime example of cuneiform writing is a lengthy poem that was discovered in the ruins of Uruk. The ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' was written in the standard Sumerian cuneiform. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or "Bilgamesh" in Sumerian. The story relates the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, [[Enkidu]]. It was laid out on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving example of fictional literature.

The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a [[language isolate]] in [[linguistics]], because it belongs to no known language family. Akkadian, by contrast, belongs to the Semitic branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages]]. There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other [[language family|language families]]. It is an [[agglutinative language]]. In other words, [[morpheme]]s ("units of meaning") are added together to create words, unlike [[analytic languages]] where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a [[Substratum (linguistics)|substratum]] or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously [[Proto-Euphratean]] or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others.

Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases do not give the full grammatical structure of the language and seem to have been used as an "[[aide-mémoire]]" for knowledgeable scribes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics|last=Allan|first=Keith|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-164343-9|location=Oxford|pages=56–57}}</ref>

Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC.<ref name="woods">Woods, C. 2006. [http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429121058/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf|date=2013-04-29}}. In S. L. Sanders (ed), ''Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture'': 91–120 Chicago.</ref> Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Babylonia and Assyria until the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryhistoric00camp_191 |title=A glossary of historical linguistics |last2=Mixco |first2=Mauricio J. |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7486-2379-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/glossaryhistoric00camp_191/page/n202 196] |url-access=limited}}</ref>
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File:Early writing tablet recording the allocation of beer.jpg|An early writing tablet for recording the allocation of beer, 3100–3000 BC, from Iraq. [[British Museum]], London
Cuneiform tablet- administrative account with entries concerning malt and barley groats MET DP293245.jpg|A cuneiform tablet about an administrative account, with entries concerning malt and barley groats, 3100–2900 BC. Clay, 6.8 x 4.5 x 1.6&nbsp;cm, the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
Bill of sale Louvre AO3766.jpg|A bill of sale of a field and a house, from [[Shuruppak]], c. 2600 BC. Height: 8.5&nbsp;cm, width: 8.5&nbsp;cm, depth: 2&nbsp;cm. The Louvre
Stele of Vultures detail 02.jpg|''[[Stele of the Vultures]]'', c. 2450 BC, limestone, Found in 1881 by Édouard de Sarzec in [[Girsu]], now Tell Telloh, Iraq. The Louvre
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