Editing Second Triumvirate (section)

=== End of the triumvirate, 32–30&nbsp;BC ===
{{further|War of Actium}}
[[File:Cleopatra Tetradrachm Antiochia.jpg|thumb|[[Cleopatra]] and [[Mark Antony]] depicted on a silver [[tetradrachm]] struck in [[Antioch on the Orontes|Antioch]] (36&nbsp;BC). ]]
[[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated {{circa|30&nbsp;BC}}.]]

The triumvirate's legal term expired on 31 December 33&nbsp;BC (Octavian's holding of his triumviral legal powers may have continued to 27&nbsp;BC).<ref>This is disputed. {{harvnb|Pelling|1996|pp=67 et seq}} discusses the matter. {{harvnb|Aug. ''RG''|loc=7.1}} implies he held the trimvirate continually for ten years, which Pelling finds "decisive". Others argue that the triumvirate, as a magistracy without a specific term, ended only with the abdication of its members; Octavian abdicated in 27&nbsp;BC, long after expiration of the second quinquennium. {{harvnb|Vervaet|2020|pp=29–32}}.</ref> In the new year, Octavian used force to drive the potentially resurgent consuls from Rome after one of the consuls started to publicly attack him.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=48–49}} The consuls fled to the east and Antony with several hundred senators, which Antony organised into a "counter-senate".<ref>{{harvnb|Pelling|1996|p=50|ps=, noting that some scholars, including Syme, infer more than 300 senators; Pelling calls that inference "most precarious".}}</ref>

Antony started to move his massive army, of some 100,000 men and 800 ships, west towards Greece. His men debated whether or not they should permit Cleopatra to stay with them: the main argument to remove her was that her presence would further Octavian's propaganda depicting a war on the east;{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=50}} however, removing her would also demoralise some of their own forces, who were fighting for their queen against Rome rather than for Antony, a Roman general. Arriving in Athens, Antony divorced Octavia; the choice of removing his Roman wife to stay with his Egyptian mistress alienated Italian public opinion.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=51}}

[[Lucius Munatius Plancus]] then fled Antony's camp for Octavian's. Upon his arrival, he recommend that Octavian open Antony's will, legally sealed with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s. Opening it, Octavian allegedly found that Antony planned to be buried in Alexandria, would recognise [[Caesarion]] as Caesar's son, and give large portions of Roman lands to his children with Cleopatra. It is likely that Octavian may have invented provisions: the Vestals in Rome would not have seen the sealed will; some provisions may have been alleged which Antony would find uncomfortable to deny (losing eastern support) or admit (losing western support).{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=52}}

Antony's forces in Greece provoked panic in Italy; Octavian, no longer calling himself triumvir (but retaining his provincial commands) organised defence of the peninsula. He organised a civil oath to his personal leadership, unprecedented in republican history. Declaring war on Cleopatra, Octavian also had the republic strip Antony of his legal position.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=52–54}}

Early in the campaigning season of 31&nbsp;BC, Agrippa launched a series of surprise attacks on the western Greek harbours under Antony's control. Octavian moved quickly to take beachheads on the Greek mainland near Corcyra.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=56}} After cutting off Antony's supplies and escape by land, Antony and Cleopatra engaged in a sea battle, attempting to break out with his remaining fleet. They fought Octavian on 2 September 31&nbsp;BC at the [[Battle of Actium]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=57–58}} Antony and Cleopatra were able to flee through a gap in the line, which was the plan, but most of his fleet did not follow and returned to port. After the battle, most of his forces in Greece surrendered.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=59}}

After a number of defections to Octavian – both Roman governors and client kings – through the winter of 31 and 30&nbsp;BC, Antony's remaining forces were only those in the Ptolemaic Kingdom.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=61}} Troubled by demands from his soldiers for land, and only able to solve them with large-scale land purchases, Octavian marched on Egypt in pursuit of its booty. He marched overland on the Mediterranean coast. He engaged negotiations with Cleopatra but they broke down by July 30&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=62}} Later that month, Octavian arrived at Alexandria and on 1 August, took and sacked the city.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=63}} He killed Caesarion and Antony's heir, [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|Antyllus]], but captured Cleopatra's children for his triumph. Cleopatra and Antony committed suicide.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=64–65}}