Editing Sculpture (section)

===Europe===

====Ancient Greece====
{{main|Ancient Greek sculpture}}
[[File:Vognstyreren-fra Delfi2.jpg|thumb|[[Charioteer of Delphi]], [[Art in ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[bronze sculpture]], 5th century BCE, close up head detail]]
The first distinctive style of [[ancient Greek sculpture]] developed in the Early Bronze Age [[Cycladic]] period (3rd millennium BCE), where marble figures, usually female and small, are represented in an elegantly simplified geometrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms crossed in front, but other figures are shown in different poses, including a complicated figure of a harpist seated on a chair.<ref>[[commons:Category:Getty Villa - Harp player - inv. 85.AA.103|images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103]]</ref>

The subsequent [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] cultures developed sculpture further, under influence from Syria and elsewhere, but it is in the later [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]] from around 650 BCE that the [[kouros]] developed. These are large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples and tombs, with the [[Kore (sculpture)|kore]] as the clothed female equivalent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "[[archaic smile]]". They seem to have served a number of functions, perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes the person buried in a grave, as with the [[Kroisos Kouros]]. They are clearly influenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles, but the Greek artists were much more ready to experiment within the style.

During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed rapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with much more active and varied figure poses in narrative scenes, though still within idealized conventions. Sculptured [[pediment]]s were added to [[Greek temple|temples]], including the [[Parthenon]] in Athens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520 using figures in the round were fortunately used as infill for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, and recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered condition. Other significant remains of architectural sculpture come from [[Paestum]] in Italy, [[Corfu]], [[Delphi]] and the [[Temple of Aphaea]] in [[Aegina]] (much now in [[Munich]]).<ref>Cook, 72, 85–109; Boardman, 47–59</ref>  Most Greek sculpture originally included at least some colour; the [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek|Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Museum]] in Copenhagen, Denmark, has done extensive research and recreation of the original colours.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.glyptoteket.com/about-the-museum/research/|title=Research|work=Glyptoteket|access-date=September 23, 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924044927/http://www.glyptoteket.com/about-the-museum/research/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trackingcolour.com/|title=Tracking Colour|website=www.trackingcolour.com|access-date=September 23, 2017|archive-date=December 9, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209145611/http://www.trackingcolour.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Head figurine Spedos Louvre Ma2709.jpg|Cycladic statue 2700–2300 BCE. Head from the figure of a woman, H. {{convert|27|cm|in}}
File:Goulandris Master - Cycladic Female Figurine - Walters 23253.jpg|Cycladic Female Figurine, {{Circa|2500–2400 BCE}}, {{convert|41.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} high
File:Athens Bull Rhyton 020911.jpg|Mycenae, 1600−1500 BCE. Silver rhyton with gold horns and rosette on the forehead
File:Marble statue of a kouros (youth) MET DT263.jpg|Lifesize [[New York Kouros]], {{Circa|590}}–580 BCE, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:028MAD Sphinx.jpg|The "[[Naxos|Naxian]] [[Sphinx]]" from [[Delphi]], 570–560 BCE, the figure {{convert|222|cm|in|abbr=on}} high
File:ACMA 679 Kore 1.JPG|''[[Peplos Kore]]'', c. 530 BCE, [[Athens]], [[Acropolis Museum]]
</gallery>
<gallery>
File:Aphaia pediment Laomedon E-XI Glyptothek Munich 85.jpg|Late Archaic warrior from the east pediment of the [[Temple of Aphaea]], {{Circa|500}}
File:Limestone sarcophagus- the Amathus sarcophagus MET DT257.jpg|The [[Amathus sarcophagus]], from [[Amathus]], [[Cyprus]], 2nd quarter of the 5th century BCE [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
</gallery>

=====Classical=====
[[File:South metope 27 Parthenon BM.jpg|thumb|High Classical high relief from the [[Elgin Marbles]], which originally decorated the [[Parthenon]], c. 447–433 BCE]]
There are fewer original remains from the first phase of the Classical period, often called the [[Severe style]]; free-standing statues were now mostly made in bronze, which always had value as scrap. The Severe style lasted from around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 in statues, to about 450. The relatively rigid poses of figures relaxed, and asymmetrical turning positions and oblique views became common, and deliberately sought. This was combined with a better understanding of anatomy and the harmonious structure of sculpted figures, and the pursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which had not been present before. Excavations at the [[Temple of Zeus, Olympia]] since 1829 have revealed the largest group of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the [[Louvre]].<ref>Cook, 109–19; Boardman, 87–95.</ref>

The "High Classical" period lasted only a few decades from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous influence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a very restricted number of original survivals. The best known works are the [[Parthenon Marbles]], traditionally (since [[Plutarch]]) executed by a team led by the most famous ancient Greek sculptor [[Phidias]], active from about 465–425, who was in his own day more famous for his colossal [[Chryselephantine sculpture|chryselephantine]] [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]] (c. 432), one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]], his ''[[Athena Parthenos]]'' (438), the cult image of the [[Parthenon]], and ''[[Athena Promachos]]'', a colossal bronze figure that stood next to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are known from many representations. He is also credited as the creator of some life-size bronze statues known only from later copies whose identification is controversial, including the ''[[Hermes Ludovisi|Ludovisi Hermes]]''.<ref>Lapatin, Kenneth D.S., ''Phidias'', [[Oxford Art Online]], accessed August 24, 2012.</ref>

The High Classical style continued to develop realism and sophistication in the human figure, and improved the depiction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the impact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually very restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of groups of figures in reliefs and on pediments combined complexity and harmony in a way that had a permanent influence on Western art. Relief could be very high indeed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where most of the leg of the warrior is completely detached from the background, as were the missing parts; relief this high made sculptures more subject to damage.<ref>Cook, 119–31.</ref> The Late Classical style developed the free-standing female nude statue, supposedly an innovation of [[Praxiteles]], and developed increasingly complex and subtle poses that were interesting when viewed from a number of angles, as well as more expressive faces; both trends were to be taken much further in the Hellenistic period.<ref>Cook, 131–41.</ref>

=====Hellenistic=====
[[File:Fregio della gigantomachia 02.JPG|thumb|The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the [[Pergamon Altar]], early 2nd century]]
[[File:Tanagra o corinto, figura di donna seduta, 325-150 ac ca. 11.JPG|thumb|Small [[Greek terracotta figurines]] were very popular as ornaments in the home]]
The [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic period]] is conventionally dated from the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in 323 BCE, and ending either with the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by [[Roman Republic|Rome]] in 146 BCE or with the final defeat of the last remaining successor-state to Alexander's empire after the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BCE, which also marks the end of [[Republican Rome]].<ref name="ReferenceC">Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii. Green P. {{ISBN|978-0-7538-2413-9}}.</ref>  It is thus much longer than the previous periods, and includes at least two major phases: a "Pergamene" style of experimentation, exuberance and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in the 2nd century BCE a classicising return to a more austere simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizations dating is typically very uncertain, especially when only later copies are known, as is usually the case. The initial Pergamene style was not especially associated with [[Pergamon]], from which it takes its name, but the very wealthy kings of that state were among the first to collect and also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissioned much new work, including the famous [[Pergamon Altar]] whose sculpture is now mostly in Berlin and which exemplifies the new style, as do the   [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]] (another of the Seven Wonders), the famous ''[[Laocoön and his Sons]]'' in the [[Vatican Museums]], a late example, and the bronze original of ''[[The Dying Gaul]]'' (illustrated at top), which we know was part of a group actually commissioned for Pergamon in about 228 BCE, from which the [[Ludovisi Gaul]] was also a copy. The group called the [[Farnese Bull]], possibly a 2nd-century marble original, is still larger and more complex,<ref>Cook, 142–56.</ref>

Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of subjects represented, partly as a result of greater general prosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy class who had large houses decorated with sculpture, although we know that some examples of subjects that seem best suited to the home, such as children with animals, were in fact placed in temples or other public places. For a much more popular home decoration market there were [[Tanagra figurine]]s, and those from other centres where small pottery figures were produced on an industrial scale, some religious but others showing animals and elegantly dressed ladies. Sculptors became more technically skilled in representing facial expressions conveying a wide variety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, as well representing different ages and races. The reliefs from the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect; most work was free-standing, and group compositions with several figures to be seen in the round, like the ''Laocoon'' and the Pergamon group celebrating victory over the Gauls became popular, having been rare before. The [[Barberini Faun]], showing a [[satyr]] sprawled asleep, presumably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation of the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive sculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.<ref>Cook, 142–54.</ref>

After the conquests of Alexander [[Hellenistic culture]] was dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some of [[Central Asia]], and increasingly being adopted by European elites, especially in Italy, where [[Magna Graecia|Greek colonies]] initially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and artists, spread very widely, and was especially influential in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encountered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hellenistic area. The massive so-called [[Alexander Sarcophagus]] found in [[Sidon]] in modern Lebanon, was probably made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greek artists for a Hellenized Persian governor.<ref>Cook, 155–58.</ref>  The wealth of the period led to a greatly increased production of luxury forms of small sculpture, including [[engraved gem]]s and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.

<gallery widths="175px" heights="200px">
File:Reggio calabria museo nazionale bronzi di riace.jpg|The [[Riace Bronzes]], very rare bronze figures recovered from the sea, c. 460–430
File:Hermes and the infant Dionysus by Praxiteles.jpg|''[[Hermes and the Infant Dionysos]]'', possibly an original by [[Praxiteles]], 4th century
File:Italia del sud, due statuette femminili dolenti, 350-300 ac. ca.JPG|Two elegant ladies, pottery figurines, 350–300
File:Bronze statuette of a horse MET DP120125.jpg|''Bronze Statuette of a Horse,'' late 2nd – 1st century BCE [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Nike of Samothrake Louvre Ma2369 n4.jpg|''The [[Winged Victory of Samothrace]]'', {{circa|190 BCE}}, [[Louvre]]
File:Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399 n4.jpg|''[[Venus de Milo]]'', {{circa|130}}–100 BCE, [[Culture of Greece|Greek]], the [[Louvre]]
File:Laocoön and his sons group.jpg|''[[Laocoön and his Sons]]'', Greek, (Late [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]]), perhaps a copy, between 200 BCE and 20 CE, [[white marble]], [[Vatican Museum]]
File:0 Apollon du Belvédère - Cortile Ottagono - Museo Pio-Clementino - Vatican (2).JPG|[[Leochares]], ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'', {{circa|130}}–140 CE. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original of 330–320 BCE. Vatican Museums
</gallery>

====Europe after the Greeks====
=====Roman sculpture=====
{{main|Roman sculpture}}
[[File:26 colonna traiana da estt 05.jpg|thumb|Section of [[Trajan's Column]], CE 113, with scenes from the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Dacian Wars]]]]
[[File:Ara Pacis Relief Pax.jpg|thumb|[[Augustus|Augustan]] state Greco-Roman style on the {{Lang|la|[[Ara Pacis]]|italic=no}}, 13 BCE]]
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring [[Etruscan art|Etruscans]], themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in [[terracotta]], usually lying on top of a [[sarcophagus]] lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding [[Roman Republic]] began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] far east, official and [[Roman patrician|patrician]] sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.<ref>Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66–69.</ref> By the 2nd century BCE, "most of the sculptors working at Rome" were Greek,<ref>Hennig, 24.</ref> often enslaved in conquests such as that of [[Corinth]] (146 BCE), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.<ref>Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of [[Verres]], former governor of Sicily, [[Cicero]]'s prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length.</ref>

A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments, which very often featured portrait busts, of prosperous middle-class Romans, and [[Roman portraiture|portraiture]] is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the [[Tomb of the Scipios]] or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze.<ref>Henig, 23–24.</ref> Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the [[basilica]]s of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even [[Londinium]] had a near-colossal statue of [[Nero]], though far smaller than the 30-metre-high [[Colossus of Nero]] in Rome, now lost.<ref>Henig, 66–71.</ref>

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great [[Roman triumphal column]]s with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating [[Trajan's Column|Trajan]] (CE 113) and [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|Marcus Aurelius]] (by 193) survive in Rome, where the {{Lang|la|[[Ara Pacis]]|italic=no}} ("Altar of Peace", 13 BCE) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the [[Arch of Constantine]] and the base of the [[Column of Antoninus Pius]] (161),<ref>Henig, 73–82; Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–17, 128–32, 141–59, 177–82, 197–211.</ref> [[Campana relief]]s were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver [[Warren Cup]], glass [[Lycurgus Cup]], and large cameos like the [[Gemma Augustea]], [[Gonzaga Cameo]] and the "[[Great Cameo of France]]".<ref>Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–15.</ref>  For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of [[Ancient Roman pottery|pottery vessels]] and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.<ref>Henig, Chapter 8.</ref>

After moving through a late 2nd-century "baroque" phase,<ref>Strong, 171–76, 211–14.</ref> in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the [[Arch of Constantine]] of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with [[roundel]]s in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the ''[[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|Four Tetrarchs]]'' ({{Circa|305}}) from the new capital of [[Constantinople]], now in Venice. [[Ernst Kitzinger]] found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity—in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".<ref>Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–57, 264–66, 272–80.</ref>

This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which [[Christianity]] was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the [[Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus]], and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the [[consular diptych]].<ref>Strong, 287–91, 305–08, 315–18; Henig, 234–40.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Museo archeologico di Firenze, coperchio di sepolcro muliebre da Tuscania, terracotta con tracce di policromia III sec. d.c.JPG|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] [[sarcophagus]], 3rd century BCE
File:Capitoline Brutus Musei Capitolini MC1183 02.jpg|The "[[Capitoline Brutus]]", dated to the 3rd or 1st century BCE
File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|''[[Augustus of Prima Porta]]'', statue of the emperor [[Augustus]], 1st century CE. [[Vatican Museums]]
File:Tomba dei decii, dalla via ostiense, 98-117 dc..JPG|Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE
File:Claudius Pio-Clementino Inv243.jpg|Bust of [[Emperor Claudius]], {{Circa|50 CE}}, (reworked from a bust of emperor [[Caligula]]), It was found in the so-called Otricoli basilica in [[Lanuvium]], Italy, [[Vatican Museums]]
File:COMMODE HERCULE.jpg|[[Commodus]] dressed as [[Hercules]], {{Circa|191 CE}}, in the late imperial "baroque" style
File:Venice – The Tetrarchs 03.jpg|''[[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|The Four Tetrarchs]]'', {{Circa|305}}, showing the new anti-classical style, in [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]], now [[San Marco, Venice]]
File:Great Cameo of France CdM Paris Bab264 white background.jpg|The [[hardstone carving|cameo gem]] known as the "[[Great Cameo of France]]", {{Circa|23 CE}}, with an [[allegory]] of [[Augustus]] and his family
</gallery>

=====Early Medieval and Byzantine=====
[[File:St Ninian's Isle TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg|thumb|Silver monster on a [[chape]], Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, [[St Ninian's Isle Treasure]], {{Circa|800}}]]
[[File:Gerokreuz full 20050903.jpg|thumb|The [[Gero Cross]], {{Circa|965–970}}, [[Cologne]], Germany, the first great example of the revival of large sculpture]]
The [[Early Christian]]s were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, though Roman traditions continued in portrait busts and [[sarcophagus]] reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is known) of the civilizations of the [[Migration period]], as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burial treasure at [[Sutton Hoo]], and the jewellery of [[Scythian art]] and the hybrid Christian and [[animal style]] productions of [[Insular art]]. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition, [[Carolingian art]] revived ivory carving in the West, often in panels for the [[treasure binding]]s of grand [[illuminated manuscript]]s, as well as [[crozier]] heads and other small fittings.

[[Byzantine art]], though producing superb ivory reliefs and architectural decorative carving, never returned to monumental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the round.<ref>Robinson, 12, 15.</ref>  However, in the West during the [[Carolingian]] and [[Ottonian]] periods there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues, in courts and major churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th century there are records of several apparently life-size sculptures in [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] churches, probably of precious metal around a wooden frame, like the [[Golden Madonna of Essen]]. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,<ref>Dodwell, Chapter 2.</ref> and survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before the year 1000 are exceptionally rare. Much the finest is the [[Gero Cross]], of 965–970, which is a [[crucifix]], which was evidently the commonest type of sculpture; [[Charlemagne]] had set one up in the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen]] around 800. These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The [[runestone]]s of the [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] world, the [[Pictish stone]]s of Scotland and possibly the [[high cross]] reliefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculptural traditions that bridged the period of Christianization.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Byzantine ivory 801.jpg|''[[Archangel Ivory]]'', 525–550, [[Constantinople]]
File:Saint Remigius binding Medieval Picardie Museum.jpg|Late [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] ivory panel, probably meant for a book-cover
File:Triptych Harbaville Louvre OA3247 recto.jpg|The [[Harbaville Triptych]], [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] [[ivory]], mid-10th century
</gallery>

=====Romanesque=====
{{main|Romanesque art}}
[[File:Braunschweiger Löwe, original in the Dankwarderode Castle - Braunschweig, Germany - DSC04562.JPG|thumb|''[[Brunswick Lion]]'', 1166, the first large hollow casting of a figure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long]]
[[Image:Cologne Cathedral Shrine of Magi.jpg|thumb|''[[Shrine of the Three Kings]]'' in [[Cologne Cathedral]]]]
Beginning in roughly 1000 A.D., there was a rebirth of artistic production in all Europe, led by general economic growth in production and commerce, and the new style of [[Romanesque art]] was the first medieval style to be used in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and pilgrim's churches were increasingly decorated with architectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture developed, such as the [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] over church doors in the 12th century, and the inhabited [[Capital (architecture)#Romanesque and Gothic capitals|capital]] with figures and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches with sculpture include in France [[Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay|Vézelay]] and [[Moissac Abbey|Moissac]] and in Spain [[Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos|Silos]].<ref>Calkins, 79–80, 90–102.</ref>

Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of columns were never more exciting than in this period, when they were often carved with complete scenes with several figures.<ref>Calkins, 107–14.</ref>  The large wooden [[crucifix]] was a German innovation right at the start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the [[high relief]] was above all the sculptural mode of the period. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of capitals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures still often varied in size in relation to their importance portraiture hardly existed.

Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal had a very high status in the period, much more so than monumental sculpture — we know the names of more makers of these than painters, illuminators or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]], became very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best known is the [[Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]] by [[Nicholas of Verdun]]. The bronze [[Gloucester candlestick]] and the [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège]] are superb examples, very different in style, of metal casting, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a triumphal column and other fittings at [[St. Mary's Cathedral, Hildesheim|Hildesheim Cathedral]], the [[Gniezno Doors]], and the doors of the [[Basilica di San Zeno]] in [[Verona]] are other substantial survivals. The [[aquamanile]], a container for water to wash with, appears to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century, and often took fantastic [[zoomorphic]] forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest.<ref>Calkins, 115–32.</ref>

The [[Cloisters Cross]] is an unusually large [[ivory]] [[crucifix]], with complex carving including many figures of [[prophet]]s and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, [[Master Hugo]], who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces it was originally partly coloured. The [[Lewis chessmen]] are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which many pieces or fragments remain from [[crozier]]s, plaques, [[pectoral cross]]es and similar objects.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Renier de Huy JPG0.jpg|[[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège]], ''[[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]]'', 1107–1118
File:02 Basilique Ste-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay - Tympan.jpg|The tympanum of [[Vézelay Abbey]], [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]], France, 1130s
File:Cathedral of Ourense (Spain).jpg|''Facade,'' Cathedral of [[Ourense]] 1160, Spain
File:Apóstoles del Pórtico de la Gloria.jpg|''Pórtico da Gloria'', [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain, {{Circa|12th}}–13th centuries
</gallery>

===== Gothic =====
{{main|Gothic art}}
[[File:Vierge a l'Enfant debout.jpg|thumb|French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high, curving to fit the shape of the ivory tusk]]
The Gothic period is essentially defined by [[Gothic architecture]], and does not entirely fit with the development of style in sculpture in either its start or finish. The facades of large churches, especially around doors, continued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted figures spreading around them. The statues on the Western (Royal) Portal at [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1145}}) show an elegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those on the south [[transept]] portal, from 1215 to 1220, show a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tradition. These trends were continued in the west portal at [[Reims Cathedral]] of a few years later, where the figures are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread across Europe.<ref>Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82–84.</ref>

In Italy [[Nicola Pisano]] (1258–1278) and his son [[Giovanni Pisano|Giovanni]] developed a style that is often called [[Proto-Renaissance]], with unmistakable influence from Roman sarcophagi and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on their [[Siena Cathedral Pulpit]] (1265–68), [[Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]] (1260), the [[Fontana Maggiore]] in [[Perugia]], and Giovanni's [[Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea, Pistoia|pulpit in Pistoia]] of 1301.<ref>Olson, 11–24; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41.</ref>  Another revival of classical style is seen in the [[International Gothic]] work of [[Claus Sluter]] and his followers in [[Burgundy (historical region)|Burgundy]] and [[Flanders]] around 1400.<ref>Snyder, 65–69.</ref>  Late Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increasingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expressive figures; most surviving examples are in Germany, after much iconoclasm elsewhere. [[Tilman Riemenschneider]], [[Veit Stoss]] and others continued the style well into the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance influences.<ref>Snyder, 305–11.</ref>

Life-size tomb effigies in stone or [[alabaster]] became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved, with the [[Scaliger Tombs]] of [[Verona]] so large they had to be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there was an industry exporting [[Nottingham alabaster]] altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not afford stone retables.<ref>[http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text07.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804003215/http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text07.htm|date=2012-08-04}} [[V&A Museum]] feature on the Nottingham alabaster ''Swansea Altarpiece''.</ref>  Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some other centres. Types of ivories included small devotional [[polyptych]]s, [[Virgin and Child from the Sainte-Chapelle|single figures, especially of the Virgin]], mirror-cases, combs, and [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|elaborate caskets with scenes from Romances]], used as engagement presents.<ref>Calkins, 193–98.</ref>  The very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like the [[Duc de Berry]]'s [[Holy Thorn Reliquary]], until they ran short of money, when they were melted down again for cash.<ref>Cherry, 25–48; Henderson, 134–41.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Chartres2006 077.jpg|West portal of [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1145}})
File:Chartres cathedral 023 martyrs S TTaylor.JPG|South portal of [[Chartres Cathedral]] ({{circa|1215}}–1220)
File:Reims6.jpg|West portal at [[Reims Cathedral]], [[Annunciation]] group
File:Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg|[[Nicola Pisano]], ''Nativity'' and ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]'' from the [[Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]]
File:Bamberger Dom-Bamberger Reiter.JPG|The [[Bamberg Horseman]] 1237, near life-size stone [[equestrian statue]], the first of this kind since [[antiquities|antiquity]].
File:French - Casket with Scenes of Romances - Walters 71264 - Top.jpg|Lid of the [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|Walters Casket]], with the ''Siege of the Castle of Love'' at left, and [[jousting]]. Paris, 1330–1350
File:Siege castle love Louvre OA6933.jpg|''Siege of the Castle of Love'' on a mirror-case in the [[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]], 1350–1370; the ladies are losing.
File:Pietà Naumburg Cathedral 01a.jpg|Central German [[Pietà]], 1330–1340
File:Dijon mosesbrunnen4.jpg|[[Claus Sluter]], [[David (biblical king)|David]] and a [[prophet]] from the ''Well of Moses''
File:Holy Thorn Reliquary base.jpg|Base of the [[Holy Thorn Reliquary]], a ''Resurrection of the Dead'' in gold, enamel and gems
File:English - Resurrection - Walters 27308.jpg|Section of a panelled altarpiece with ''[[Resurrection of Christ]]'', English, 1450–1490, [[Nottingham alabaster]] with remains of colour
File:Rothenburg ob der Tauber 2011 St Jakob 002.JPG|Detail of the [[Last Supper]] from [[Tilman Riemenschneider]]'s ''Altar of the Holy Blood'', 1501–1505, [[Rothenburg ob der Tauber]], [[Bavaria]]
</gallery>

====Renaissance====
[[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|[[Michelangelo]], ''[[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]]'', 1499]]
[[File:Rome-Basilique San Pietro in Vincoli-Moise MichelAnge.jpg|thumb|[[Michelangelo]], The [[Tomb of Pope Julius II]], {{circa|1545}}, with statues of [[Rachel]] and [[Leah]] on the left and right of his ''[[Moses (Michelangelo)|Moses]]'']]{{Main|Sculpture in the Renaissance Period|Italian Renaissance sculpture}}
Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with the famous competition for the doors of the [[Florence Baptistry]] in 1403, from which the trial models submitted by the winner, [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], and [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] survive. Ghiberti's doors are still in place, but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the other entrance, the so-called ''Gates of Paradise'', which took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly confident classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief allowing extensive backgrounds.<ref>Olson, 41–46, 62–63.</ref> The intervening years had seen Ghiberti's early assistant [[Donatello]] develop with seminal statues including his ''[[David (Donatello, marble)|Davids]]'' in marble (1408–09) and bronze (1440s), and his [[Equestrian statue of Gattamelata]], as well as reliefs.<ref>Olson, 45–52, and see index.</ref> A leading figure in the later period was [[Andrea del Verrocchio]], best known for his [[equestrian statue]] of [[Bartolomeo Colleoni]] in Venice;<ref>Olson, 114–18, 149–50.</ref> his pupil [[Leonardo da Vinci]] designed an equine sculpture in 1482 ''[[Leonardo's horse|The Horse]]'' for [[Milan]], but only succeeded in making a {{convert|24|ft|m|adj=on}} clay model which was destroyed by French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculptural plans were never completed.<ref>Olson, 149–50.</ref>

The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculpture remains a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved inside just as outside public monuments became common. Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in Italy around 1450, with the [[Naples|Neapolitan]] [[Francesco Laurana]] specializing in young women in meditative poses, while [[Antonio Rossellino]] and others more often depicted knobbly-faced men of affairs, but also young children.<ref>Olson, 103–10, 131–32.</ref>  The portrait [[medal]] invented by [[Pisanello]] also often depicted women; relief [[plaquette]]s were another new small form of sculpture in cast metal.

Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces including his ''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]'', ''[[Pieta (Michelangelo)|Pietà]]'', ''[[Moses (Michelangelo)|Moses]]'', and pieces for the [[Tomb of Pope Julius II]] and [[Medici Chapels|Medici Chapel]] could not be ignored by subsequent sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a ''[[contrapposto]]'' pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It differs from previous representations of the subject in that David is depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the giant's defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Donatello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and battle ready.<ref>Olson, Chapter 8, 179–81.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Ghiberti-porta.jpg|[[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], panel of the ''[[Sacrifice of Isaac]]'' from the [[Florence Baptistry]] doors; [[:File:Abraham (Gates of Paradise) 01.JPG|oblique view here]]
File:Cantoria Della Robbia OPA Florence 6.jpg|[[Luca della Robbia]], detail of ''Cantoria'', {{circa|1438}}, [[Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Florence)|Museo dell'Opera del Duomo]], Florence
File:Florence - David by Donatello.jpg|[[Donatello]], ''[[David (Donatello, bronze)|David]]'' {{circa|1440s}}, [[Bargello Museum]], [[Florence]]
File:Firenze.PalVecchio.Donatello.JPG|[[Donatello]], ''[[Judith and Holofernes (Donatello)|Judith and Holofernes]]'', {{circa|1460}}, [[Palazzo Vecchio]], [[Florence]]
File:Francesco Laurana pushkin.jpg|[[Francesco Laurana]], female bust (cast)
File:Verrochioorsanmichelle.jpg|[[Verrocchio]], ''[[Christ and St. Thomas (Verrocchio)|Doubting Thomas]]'', 1467–1483, [[Orsanmichele]], [[Florence]]
File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005 denoised.jpg|[[Michelangelo]], ''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]'', {{Circa|1504}}, [[Galleria dell'Accademia]], [[Florence]]
File:'Dying Slave' Michelangelo JBU001.jpg|[[Michelangelo]], ''[[Dying Slave]]'', {{Circa|1513–1516}}
</gallery>

====Mannerist====
{{main|Mannerism}}
[[File:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg|thumb|[[Adriaen de Vries]], ''Mercury and Psyche'' [[Northern Mannerist]] life-size bronze, made in 1593 for [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]].]]
As in painting, early Italian [[Mannerist]] sculpture was very largely an attempt to find an original style that would top the achievement of the [[High Renaissance]], which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions to fill other places in the [[Piazza della Signoria]] in Florence, next to Michelangelo's ''David''. [[Baccio Bandinelli]] took over the project of ''[[Hercules and Cacus]]'' from the master himself, but it was little more popular than it is now, and maliciously compared by [[Benvenuto Cellini]] to "a sack of melons", though it had a long-lasting effect in apparently introducing relief panels on the [[pedestal]] of statues for the first time. Like other works of his, and other Mannerists, it removes far more of the original block than Michelangelo would have done.<ref>Olson, 179–82.</ref>  Cellini's bronze ''[[Perseus with the head of Medusa]]'' is certainly a masterpiece, designed with eight angles of view, another Mannerist characteristic, but is indeed mannered compared to the ''David''s of Michelangelo and Donatello.<ref>Olson, 183–87.</ref>  Originally a goldsmith, his famous gold and enamel [[Cellini Salt Cellar|Salt Cellar]] (1543) was his first sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.<ref>Olson, 182–83.</ref>  As these examples show, the period extended the range of secular subjects for large works beyond portraits, with mythological figures especially favoured; previously these had mostly been found in small works.

Small bronze figures for collector's [[Cabinet (room)|cabinets]], often mythological subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance form at which [[Giambologna]], originally [[Flanders|Flemish]] but based in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, also creating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the collection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers devised elegant elongated examples of the ''[[figura serpentinata]]'', often of two intertwined figures, that were interesting from all angles.<ref>Olson, 194–202.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Fontainebleau escalier roi.jpg|[[Stucco]] [[overdoor]] at [[palace of Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau]], probably designed by [[Primaticcio]], who painted the oval inset, 1530s or 1540s
File:Persee-florence.jpg|[[Benvenuto Cellini]], ''[[Perseus with the head of Medusa]]'', 1545–1554
File:Samson slaying a philistine.jpg|[[Giambologna]], ''[[Samson Slaying a Philistine]]'', about 1562
File:Giambologna raptodasabina.jpg|[[Giambologna]], ''[[Abduction of a Sabine Woman|Rape of the Sabine Women]]'', 1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6" (4.1&nbsp;m) high, [[marble]]
</gallery>

====Baroque and Rococo====
{{main|Baroque sculpture}}
[[File:Apollo and Daphne (Bernini).jpg|thumb|[[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], ''[[Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)|Apollo and Daphne]]'' in the [[Galleria Borghese]], 1622–1625]]
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles, and reflected a general continuation of the Renaissance move away from the relief to sculpture created in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle of a large space—elaborate fountains such as Bernini's [[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]] (Rome, 1651), or those in the [[Gardens of Versailles]] were a Baroque speciality. The [[Baroque]] style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] the dominating figure of the age in works such as ''[[The Ecstasy of St Theresa]]'' (1647–1652).<ref>Boucher, 134–42 on the [[Cornaro chapel]]; see index for Bernini generally.</ref> Much Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused sculpture and architecture to create a transformative experience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in the classical tradition, but admired [[Hellenistic]] and later Roman sculpture, rather than that of the more "Classical" periods as they are seen today.<ref>Boucher, 16–18.</ref>

The [[Protestant Reformation]] brought an almost total stop to religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, and though secular sculpture, especially for portrait busts and [[tomb monument]]s, continued, the [[Dutch Golden Age]] has no significant sculptural component outside goldsmithing.<ref>Honour and Fleming, 450.</ref>  Partly in direct reaction, sculpture was as prominent in [[Roman Catholic church|Roman Catholicism]] as in the late Middle Ages. Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasingly popular. In the 18th century much sculpture continued on Baroque lines—the [[Trevi Fountain]] was only completed in 1762. [[Rococo]] style was better suited to smaller works, and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in [[Ceramic art#Porcelain|early European porcelain]], and interior decorative schemes in wood or plaster such as those in French domestic interiors and [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches#Rococo|Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches]].<ref>Honour and Fleming, 460–67.</ref>

<gallery widths="165px" heights="200px">
File:Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon - Louis XIV 1.jpg|Bust of [[Louis XIV]], 1686, by [[Antoine Coysevox]]
File:Francesco Mochi Santa Verónica 1629-32 Vaticano.jpg|Saint Veronica by [[Francesco Mochi]] (1640), [[Saint Peter's Basilica]]
File:Perseus Andromeda Puget Louvre MR2076.jpg|[[Pierre Paul Puget]], ''Perseus and Andromeda'', 1715, [[Musée du Louvre]]
File:Bustelli Liebesgruppe Der gestörte Schläfer BNM.jpg|[[Franz Anton Bustelli]], [[Rococo]] [[Nymphenburg Porcelain]] group
</gallery>

====Neo-Classical====
{{main|Neoclassical sculpture}}
[[File:0 Psyché ranimée par le baiser de l'Amour - Canova - Louvre 1.JPG|thumb|[[Antonio Canova]]: ''[[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss|Psyche Revived by Love's Kiss]]'', 1787]]
The [[Neoclassical sculpture|Neoclassical style]] that arrived in the late 18th century gave great emphasis to sculpture. [[Jean-Antoine Houdon]] exemplifies the penetrating portrait sculpture the style could produce, and [[Antonio Canova]]'s nudes the idealist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though its "classical" prototypes were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most familiar representatives are the Italian [[Antonio Canova]], the Englishman [[John Flaxman]] and the Dane [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat later and is exemplified in the sculptures of [[Hiram Powers]].

<gallery widths="165px" heights="200px">
File:Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) MET DT2883.jpg|[[Jean-Antoine Houdon]], ''Bust of [[Benjamin Franklin]]'', 1778, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Jasão e o Velo de ouro - Bertel Thorvaldsen - 1803.jpg|[[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]: ''[[Jason|Jason and the Golden Fleece]]'' (1803)
File:Badger church - Jane and Henrietta Browne.jpg|[[John Flaxman]], Memorial in the church at [[Badger, Shropshire]], {{circa|1780s}}
File:The Greek Slave.jpg|[[Hiram Powers]], 1851, ''[[The Greek Slave]]'', [[Yale University Art Gallery]]
</gallery>