Editing Sanskrit (section)

==Morphology==
{{Main|Sanskrit grammar}}
{{See also|Vedic Sanskrit grammar|Sanskrit verbs}}
The basis of Sanskrit morphology is the root, states Jamison, "a morpheme bearing lexical meaning".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. According to Jamison, the "three major formal elements of the morphology are (i) root, (ii) affix, and (iii) ending; and they are roughly responsible for (i) lexical meaning, (ii) derivation, and (iii) inflection respectively".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure:{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

{{block indent|''Root'' + ''Affix''{{su|b=0-n}} + ''Ending''{{su|b=0–1}}}}

The root structure has certain phonological constraints. Two of the most important constraints of a "root" is that it does not end in a short "a" (अ) and that it is monosyllabic.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} In contrast, the affixes and endings commonly do. The affixes in Sanskrit are almost always suffixes, with exceptions such as the augment "a-" added as prefix to past tense verb forms and the "-na/n-" infix in single verbal present class, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

[[Sanskrit verbs]] have the following canonical structure:{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}

{{block indent|''Root'' + ''Suffix''{{su|b=Tense-Aspect}} + ''Suffix''{{su|b=Mood}} + ''Ending''{{su|b=Personal-Number-Voice}}}}

According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages such as English.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}} Sanskrit verbs describe an action or occurrence or state, its embedded morphology informs as to "who is doing it" (person or persons), "when it is done" (tense) and "how it is done" (mood, voice). The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}}{{efn|The "root + affix" is called the "stem".{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|+Word morphology in Sanskrit, A. M. Ruppel{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}}{{efn|Other equivalents: ''bharāmi'' (I carry), ''bharati'' (he carries), ''bharāmas'' (we carry).{{sfn|J. P. Mallory| D. Q. Adams|2006|p=6}} Similar morphology is found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the [[Gothic language]], ''baira'' (I carry), ''bairis'' (you carry), ''bairiþ'' (he carries).}}
|-
!
!colspan="2"|Sanskrit word equivalent
|-
!English expression
![[IAST]]/ISO
!style="background:#ffdec1"|[[Devanagari]]
|-
| you carry
| ''bharasi''
|style="background:#ffdec1"|भरसि
|-
| they carry
| ''bharanti''
|style="background:#ffdec1"|भरन्ति
|-
| you will carry
| ''bhariṣyasi''
| style="background:#ffdec1"|भरिष्यसि
|}

Both verbs and nouns in Sanskrit are either thematic or athematic, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} ''Guna'' (strengthened) forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}}

These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. For example, in the ''Rigveda'' [[preverb]]s regularly occur in [[tmesis]], states Jamison, which means they are "separated from the finite verb".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} This indecisiveness is likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. With nonfinite forms of the verb and with nominal derivatives thereof, states Jamison, "preverbs show much clearer univerbation in Vedic, both by position and by accent, and by Classical Sanskrit, tmesis is no longer possible even with finite forms".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}} A few forms lack both inflection and root. Many words are inflected (and can enter into derivation) but lack a recognizable root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as ''mātar-'' (mother), ''nas-'' (nose), ''śvan-'' (dog). According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}}

Stems, that is "root + affix", appear in two categories in Sanskrit: vowel stems and consonant stems. Unlike some Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, according to Jamison, "Sanskrit has no closed set of conventionally denoted noun declensions". Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=17–18}} The linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical Sanskrit consist of four ''Paninian'' components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the ''Astadhyaayi'', a comprehensive system of 4,000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; ''Sivasutras'', an inventory of ''anubandhas'' (markers) that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through the ''pratyharas'' technique; ''Dhatupatha'', a list of 2,000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the ''Ganapatha'', an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems.<ref name=Kiparsky59>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Kiparsky|editor1-first=E. F. K. |editor1-last=Koerner |editor2-first=R. E. |editor2-last=Asher|title=Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCqLBQAAQBAJ |year =2014|publisher =Elsevier|isbn= 978-1-4832-9754-5|pages=59–65}}</ref> There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such as the ''Unadisutras'', which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots.<ref name=Kiparsky59/>

Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical context.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}} Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Adverbs are typically frozen case forms of adjectives, states Jamison, and "nonfinite verbal forms such as infinitives and gerunds also clearly show frozen nominal case endings".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

===Verbal forms===
The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past [[aorist]] and past perfect.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}} It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}} The middle is also referred to as the mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as {{lang|sa|parasmaipada}} (word for another) and {{lang|sa|atmanepada}} (word for oneself).{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|+Voice in Sanskrit, Stephanie Jamison{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}{{efn|Ruppel gives the following endings for the "present indicative active" in the Sanskrit language: 1st dual: {{lang|sa|-vaḥ}}, 1st plural: {{lang|sa|-maḥ}}, 2nd dual: {{lang|sa|-thaḥ}}, 2nd plural: {{lang|sa|-tha}} and so on.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}}}}
! rowspan="2" | 
! colspan="3" | Active
! colspan="3" | Middle<br />(Mediopassive)
|-
! Singular || Dual || Plural
! Singular || Dual || Plural
|-
! 1st person
| {{lang|sa|-mi}}
| {{lang|sa|-vaḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-maḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-e}}
| {{lang|sa|-vahe}}
| {{lang|sa|-mahe}}
|-
! 2nd person
| {{lang|sa|-si}}
| {{lang|sa|-thaḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-tha}}
| {{lang|sa|-se}}
| {{lang|sa|-āthe}}
| {{lang|sa|-dhve}}
|-
! 3rd person
| {{lang|sa|-ti}}
| {{lang|sa|-taḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-anti}}
| {{lang|sa|-te}}
| {{lang|sa|-āte}}
| {{lang|sa|-ante}}
|}

The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the "aorist" and the "perfect" architecture.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=21}} Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the ''Rigveda'' includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=21}} The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=20–21}}

The three verbal moods in Sanskrit are indicative, potential (optative), and imperative.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}

===Nominal forms===
Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Illustrations include ''dyāvā'' (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), ''mātarā'' (literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father).{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}

There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}} Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=20–21}}

The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} All nouns have inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the ''-ā-'' (आ, Rādhā) and ''-ī-'' (ई, Rukminī). The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=59, 79, 91, 113}} Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=191–194}}

Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} Examples of the former include ''ahám'' (first singular), ''vayám'' (first plural) and ''yūyám'' (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the ''sá/tám'' pronominal stem, and this is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}}

===Prosody, metre===
{{main|Sanskrit prosody|Vedic metre}}
The Sanskrit language formally incorporates [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metres]].<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca140/> By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called ''[[Sanskrit prosody|chandas]]'', and is considered one of the six [[Vedanga]]s, or limbs of Vedic studies.<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca140>James Lochtefeld, James (2002). "Chandas". In ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism''. Vol. 1: A-M. Rosen. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}. p. 140</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Moriz |last=Winternitz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC&pg=PA577|year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0265-0|page=577}}</ref>

{{Quote box
| quote = <poem>
There is no word without metre,
nor is there any metre without words.
</poem>
| source = — ''Natya Shastra''<ref>{{cite journal |author=Har Dutt Sharma| title= Suvrttatilaka | journal=Poona Orientalist: A Quarterly Journal Devoted to Oriental Studies| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goUkVCiQEbMC| year=1951| volume=XVII |page=84}}</ref>
| align = right
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
}}

Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of [[morae]] per verse.<ref name="Allan2013p228">{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Scharf |editor-first=Keith |editor-last=Allan |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQfDosHckzEC |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-164344-6 |pages=228–234}}</ref> The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).<ref name="PremingerWarnke2015p394" /> The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).<ref name="PremingerWarnke2015p394">{{cite book|first1=Alex |last1=Preminger|first2=Frank J. |last2=Warnke|first3=O. B. |last3=Hardison Jr.|title=Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLp9BgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7293-0|pages=394–395}}</ref>