Editing Salamander (section)

==Conservation==
[[File:Hellbender.jpg|thumb|left|The threatened hellbender]]

A general decline in living amphibian species has been linked with the fungal disease [[chytridiomycosis]]. A higher proportion of salamander species than of frogs or caecilians are in one of the at-risk categories established by the [[IUCN]]. Salamanders showed a significant diminution in numbers in the last few decades of the 20th century, although no direct link between the fungus and the population decline has yet been found.<ref name="Sandoval">{{cite journal |author1=Sandoval-Comte, Adriana |author2=Pineda, Eduardo |author3=Aguilar-López, José L. |year=2012 |title=In search of critically endangered species: the current situation of two tiny salamander species in the neotropical mountains of Mexico |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=e34023 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0034023 |pmid=22485155 |pmc=3317776 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...734023S |doi-access=free }}</ref> The IUCN made further efforts in 2005 as they established the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP), which was subsequently followed by Amphibian Ark (AArk), Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG), and finally the umbrella organization known as the Amphibian Survival Alliance (ASA).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Amphibians and conservation breeding programmes: do all threatened amphibians belong on the ark?|journal = Biodiversity and Conservation|date = 2015-07-24|issn = 0960-3115|pages = 2625–2646|volume = 24|issue = 11|doi = 10.1007/s10531-015-0966-9|first1 = Benjamin|last1 = Tapley|first2 = Kay S.|last2 = Bradfield|first3 = Christopher|last3 = Michaels|first4 = Mike|last4 = Bungard| bibcode=2015BiCon..24.2625T |s2cid = 11824410}}</ref> Researchers also cite [[deforestation]], resulting in fragmentation of suitable habitats, and [[climate change]] as possible contributory factors. Species such as ''[[Pseudoeurycea brunnata]]'' and ''[[Pseudoeurycea goebeli]]'' that had been abundant in the [[cloud forest]]s of Guatemala and Mexico during the 1970s were found by 2009 to be rare.<ref>{{cite news |title=Another Amphibian at Risk: Salamanders |author=Fountain, Henry |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/17/science/17obdecline.html?_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2009-02-16 |access-date=2013-06-28 |archive-date=2013-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126193439/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/17/science/17obdecline.html?_r=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Few data have been gathered on population sizes over the years and, by intensive surveying of historic and suitable new locations, it has been possible to locate individuals of other species, such as ''[[Parvimolge townsendi]]'', which had been thought to be [[extinct]].<ref name=Sandoval/> Currently, the major lines of defense for the conservation of Salamanders includes both [[In situ conservation|in situ]] and [[ex situ]] conservation methods. There are efforts in place for certain members of the Salamander family to be conserved under a conservation breeding program (CBP) but there should be research done ahead of time to determine if the Salamander species is actually going to value from the CBP, as researchers have noted that some species of amphibians completely fail in this environment.<ref name=":0" />

Various conservation initiatives are being attempted around the world. The [[Chinese giant salamander]], at 1.8&nbsp;m (6&nbsp;ft) the largest amphibian in the world, is [[critically endangered]], as it is collected for food and for use in [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. An environmental education programme is being undertaken to encourage sustainable management of wild populations in the [[Qinling Mountains]] and captive breeding programmes have been set up.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/asia/chinese-giant-salamander,1821,AR.html |title=Chinese Giant Salamander |work=ZSL Conservation |publisher=Zoological Society of London |access-date=2013-07-21 |archive-date=2013-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628132518/http://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/asia/chinese-giant-salamander,1821,AR.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[hellbender]] is another large, long-lived species with dwindling numbers and fewer juveniles reaching maturity than previously.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wheeler, Benjamin A. |author2=Prosen, Ethan |author3=Mathis, Alicia |author4=Wilkinson, Robert F. |year=2003 |title=Population declines of a long-lived salamander: a 20+-year study of hellbenders, ''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'' |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=109 |issue=1 |pages=151–156 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00136-2 |bibcode=2003BCons.109..151W }}</ref> Another alarming finding is the increase in abnormalities in up to 90% of the hellbender population in the [[Spring River (Arkansas)|Spring River]] watershed in Arkansas.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wheeler, Benjamin A. |author2=McCallum, Malcolm L. |author3=Trauth, Stanley E. |year=2002 |title=Abnormalities in the Ozark hellbender (''Ctyptobranchm alleganiensis bishopi'') in Arkansas: a comparison between two rivers with a historical perspective |journal=Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science |volume=58 |pages=250–252 |url=https://scholarworks.uark.edu/jaas/vol59/iss1/13/ }}</ref> Habitat loss, silting of streams, pollution and disease have all been implicated in the decline and a captive breeding programme at [[Saint Louis Zoo]] has been successfully established.<ref>{{cite news |title=World's first captive breeding of Ozark hellbenders |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111201094756.htm |newspaper=Science Daily |date=2011-12-01 |access-date=2013-07-21 |archive-date=2013-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511202834/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111201094756.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the 20 species of minute salamanders (''Thorius'' spp.) in Mexico, half are believed to have become extinct and most of the others are critically endangered. Specific reasons for the decline may include climate change, chytridiomycosis, or volcanic activity, but the main threat is [[habitat destruction]] as logging, agricultural activities, and human settlement reduce their often tiny, fragmented ranges. Survey work is being undertaken to assess the status of these salamanders, and to better understand the factors involved in their population declines, with a view to taking action.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edgeofexistence.org/amphibian_conservation/lungless.php |title=Lungless salamanders of Mexico |work=EDGE: Evolutionary distinct and globally endangered |publisher=The Zoological Society of London |access-date=2013-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163058/http://edgeofexistence.org/amphibian_conservation/lungless.php |archive-date=2013-05-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

''[[Ambystoma mexicanum]]'', an aquatic salamander, is a species protected under the Mexican UMA (Unit for Management and conservation of wildlife) as of April 1994. Another detrimental factor is that the axolotl lost their role as a top predator since the introduction of locally exotic species such as [[Nile tilapia]] and carp. Tilapia and carp directly compete with axolotls by consuming their eggs, larvae, and juveniles. Climate change has also immensely affected axolotls and their populations throughout the southern Mexico area. Due to its proximity to [[Mexico City]], officials are currently working on programs at Lake Xochimilco to bring in tourism and educate the local population on the restoration of the natural habitat of these creatures.<ref>{{Cite web|title = EDGE of Existence|url = http://www.edgeofexistence.org/amphibians/species_info.php?id=552#conservation_underway|website = EDGE of Existence|access-date = 2015-10-29|archive-date = 2015-11-17|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063535/http://www.edgeofexistence.org/amphibians/species_info.php?id=552#conservation_underway|url-status = live}}</ref> This proximity is a large factor that has impacted the survival of the axolotl, as the city has expanded to take over the Xochimilco region in order to make use of its resources for water and provision and sewage.<ref name=":1" /> It is farmed for use in research facilities and so may one day return to its natural habitat. The recent decline in population has substantially impacted genetic diversity among populations, making it difficult to further progress scientifically. Some genetic indiversity due to paedeomorphism in ''Ambystoma'' species such as the axolotl does not account for the overall lack of diversity. Evidence points toward a historical bottlenecking of ''Ambystoma'' that contributes to the variation issues and no longer a large genetic pool for it to pull from, thus raising concern for inbreeding due to lack of gene flow.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Conservation genetics of threatened Mexican axolotls (''Ambystoma'')|journal = Animal Conservation|date = 2012-02-01|issn = 1469-1795|pages = 61–72|volume = 15|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2011.00488.x|first1 = G.|last1 = Parra-Olea|first2 = K. R.|last2 = Zamudio|first3 = E.|last3 = Recuero|first4 = X.|last4 = Aguilar-Miguel|first5 = D.|last5 = Huacuz|first6 = L.|last6 = Zambrano| bibcode=2012AnCon..15...61P | s2cid=46992721 }}</ref> One way researchers are looking into maintaining genetic diversity within the population is via cryopreservation of the spermatophores from the male axolotl. It is a safe and non-invasive method that requires the collection of the spermatophores and places them into a deep freeze for preservation. Most importantly, they have found that there is only limited damage done to the spermatophores upon thawing and thus it is a viable option. As of 2013, it is a method that is being used to save not only the axolotl but also numerous other members of the salamander family.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Recent decline and potential distribution in the last remnant area of the microendemic Mexican axolotl (''Ambystoma mexicanum'')|journal = Biological Conservation|date = 2009-12-01|pages = 2881–2885|volume = 142|issue = 12|doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.07.008|first1 = Victoria|last1 = Contreras|first2 = Enrique|last2 = Martínez-Meyer|first3 = Elsa|last3 = Valiente|first4 = Luis|last4 = Zambrano| bibcode=2009BCons.142.2881C }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title = Response of a native endangered axolotl, ''Ambystoma mexicanum'' (Amphibia), to exotic fish predator|journal = Hydrobiologia |date = 2015-02-01|issn = 0018-8158|pages = 73–80|volume = 753|issue = 1|doi = 10.1007/s10750-015-2194-4|first1 = Guillermina|last1 = Alcaraz|first2 = Xarini|last2 = López-Portela| first3 = Cecilia|last3 = Robles-Mendoza|s2cid = 17468971 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.herpconbio.org/Volume_8/Issue_3/Figiel_2013.pdf|title = Cryopreservation of Sperm from the Axolotl AmbystomA MexicAnum: ImpliCations for Conservation|last = Figiel|first = Chester|date = 2013|journal = Herpetological Conservation and Biology|access-date = 26 October 2015|archive-date = 22 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160322155458/http://www.herpconbio.org/Volume_8/Issue_3/Figiel_2013.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>

Research is being done on the environmental cues that have to be replicated before captive animals can be persuaded to breed. Common species such as the tiger salamander and the mudpuppy are being given hormones to stimulate the production of sperm and eggs, and the role of arginine [[vasotocin]] in courtship behaviour is being investigated. Another line of research is [[artificial insemination]], either ''[[in vitro]]'' or by inserting spermatophores into the cloacae of females. The results of this research may be used in captive-breeding programmes for endangered species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.memphiszoo.org/salamanderconservation |title=Salamander Conservation |author1=Marcec, Ruth |author2=Bement, Hannah |work=Amphibian Conservation |publisher=Memphis Zoo |access-date=2013-07-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731001027/http://www.memphiszoo.org/salamanderconservation |archive-date=2013-07-31 }}</ref>