Editing Radioactive waste (section)

== Classification ==
Classification of radioactive waste varies by country. The IAEA, which publishes the Radioactive Waste Safety Standards (RADWASS), also plays a significant role.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050515212915/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub950e_web.pdf ''Classification of Radioactive Waste'']. IAEA, Vienna, Austria (1994).</ref> The proportion of various types of waste generated in the UK:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/~/media/shared/documents/policy/briefing%20notes/geological%20disposal%20radioactive%20waste%20policy%20briefing%20note.pdf |title=Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste |website=The Geological Society |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200912173031/https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/~/media/shared/documents/policy/briefing%20notes/geological%20disposal%20radioactive%20waste%20policy%20briefing%20note.pdf |archive-date=September 12, 2020 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref>

* 94% – low-level waste (LLW)
* ~6% – intermediate-level waste (ILW)
* <1% – high-level waste (HLW)

=== Mill tailings ===
{{Main article|Uranium tailings}}
{{See also|Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action}}
[[File:Fort-greely-low-level-waste.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Removal of very low-level waste]]
Uranium tailings are waste by-product materials left over from the rough processing of uranium-bearing [[ore]]. They are not significantly radioactive. Mill tailings are sometimes referred to as '''11(e)2 wastes''', from the section of the US [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] that defines them. Uranium mill tailings typically also contain [[Dangerous goods|chemically hazardous]] [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] such as [[lead]] and [[arsenic]]. Vast mounds of uranium mill tailings are left at many old mining sites, especially in [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]], and [[Utah]].

Although mill tailings are not very radioactive, they have long half-lives. Mill tailings often contain radium, thorium and trace amounts of uranium.<ref name="Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=April 3, 2017 |title=Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste |url=https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/radwaste.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113004118/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/radwaste.html |archive-date=November 13, 2017 |access-date=December 3, 2017 |website=U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission}}</ref>

=== Low-level waste ===
{{main|Low-level waste}}
Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the [[nuclear fuel cycle]]. Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. Materials that originate from any region of an Active Area are commonly designated as LLW as a precautionary measure even if there is only a remote possibility of being contaminated with radioactive materials. Such LLW typically exhibits no higher radioactivity than one would expect from the same material disposed of in a non-active area, such as a normal office block. Example LLW includes wiping rags, mops, medical tubes, laboratory animal carcasses, and more.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NRC: Low-Level Waste |url=https://www.nrc.gov/waste/low-level-waste.html |access-date=2018-08-17 |website=www.nrc.gov |publisher=U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission |language=en-us}}</ref> LLW makes up 94% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK. Most of it is disposed of in [[Cumbria]], first in landfill style trenches, and now using [[grout]]ed metal containers that are stacked in concrete vaults. A new site in the north of [[Scotland]] is the [[Dounreay]] site which is prepared to withstand a 4m tsunami.<ref name=":0" />[https://www.highland.gov.uk/download/downloads/id/23061/dounreay_and_vulcan_nrte_offsite_emergency_plan.pdf]

Some high-activity LLW requires shielding during handling and transport but most LLW is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. Low-level waste is divided into four classes: ''class A'', ''class B'', ''class C'', and ''Greater Than Class C'' (''GTCC'').

=== Intermediate-level waste ===
[[File:Nuclear waste flask train at Bristol Temple Meads 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Spent fuel [[Nuclear flask|flasks]] are transported by railway in the United Kingdom. Each flask is constructed of {{convert|14|in|mm|abbr=on}} thick solid steel and weighs in excess of 50 tonnes.]]
[[File:Simulated intermediate level nuclear waste - Science Museum, London.jpg|thumb|Cross-section of an intermediate-level waste canister, showing (simulated) waste encapsulated in concrete]]
Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity compared to low-level waste. It generally requires shielding, but not cooling.<ref name=nei-20131126>{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/features/featureiron-boxes-for-ilw-transport-and-storage/ |title=Iron boxes for ILW transport and storage |author=Janicki, Mark |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=26 November 2013 |access-date=4 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502202158/http://www.neimagazine.com/features/featureiron-boxes-for-ilw-transport-and-storage/ |archive-date=2 May 2014}}</ref> Intermediate-level wastes includes [[resin]]s, [[chemical sludge]] and metal [[nuclear fuel]] cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in [[concrete]] or [[bitumen]] or mixed with silica sand and [[vitrified]] for disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel reprocessing) is deposited in geological repository. Regulations in the United States do not define this category of waste; the term is used in Europe and elsewhere. ILW makes up 6% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK.<ref name=":0" />

=== High-level waste ===
{{main|High-level waste}}
High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors and the reprocessing of nuclear fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pihlak |first1=A. |title=Leaching study of heavy and radioactive elements present in wastes discarded by a uranium extraction and processing facility |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/servlets/purl/20032295 |access-date=2021-08-05 |website=OSTI}}</ref> The exact definition of HLW differs internationally. After a nuclear fuel rod serves one fuel cycle and is removed from the core, it is considered HLW.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rogner |first1=H. |title=Nuclear Power and Stable Development |journal=Journal of International Affairs |date=2010 |volume=64 |page=149}}</ref> Spent fuel rods contain mostly uranium with [[fission products]] and [[transuranic element]]s generated in the [[reactor core]]. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and often hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear [[electricity generation]] but it contributes to less than 1% of volume of all radioactive waste produced in the UK. Overall, the 60-year-long nuclear program in the UK up until 2019 produced 2150&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> of HLW.<ref name=":0" />

The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consists primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered transuranic waste.<ref name="Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" /> The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.<ref name="Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" />

The amount of HLW worldwide is increasing by about 12,000 [[tonne]]s per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-wastes-myths-and-realities.aspx |title=Myths and Realities of Radioactive Waste |date=February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313120210/http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-wastes-myths-and-realities.aspx |archive-date=2016-03-13 |access-date=2016-03-13}}</ref> A 1000-[[megawatt]] nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |title=Radioactive Waste Management |publisher=World Nuclear Association |date=July 2015 |access-date=2015-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201064831/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |archive-date=2016-02-01}}</ref> For comparison, the amount of ash produced by coal power plants in the United States is estimated at 130,000,000 t per year<ref>{{Cite web |last=US Environmental Protection Agency |first=OLEM |date=2014-12-11 |title=Coal Ash Basics |url=https://www.epa.gov/coalash/coal-ash-basics |access-date=2020-03-02 |website=US EPA |language=en-us}}</ref> and fly ash is estimated to release 100 times more radiation than an equivalent nuclear power plant.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coal-ash-is-more-radioactive-than-nuclear-waste/ |title=Coal Ash Is More Radioactive Than Nuclear Waste |last=Hvistendahl |first=Mara |website=Scientific American |language=en |access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref>

[[File:Spent nuclear fuel in the US.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The current locations across the United States where nuclear waste is stored]]
In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 t of nuclear HLW were stored globally.<ref>Geere, Duncan. (2010-09-20) [https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2010-09/20/into-eternity-nuclear-waste-finland Where do you put 250,000 tonnes of nuclear waste? (Wired UK)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522232044/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2010-09/20/into-eternity-nuclear-waste-finland |date=2016-05-22 }}. Wired.co.uk. Retrieved on 2015-12-15.</ref> This does not include amounts that have escaped into the environment from accidents or tests. [[Japan]] is estimated to hold 17,000 t of HLW in storage in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-10/japan-s-17-000-tons-of-nuclear-waste-in-search-of-a-home |work=Bloomberg |first=Yuriy |last=Humber |title=Japan's 17,000 Tons of Nuclear Waste in Search of a Home |date=2015-07-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517154128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-10/japan-s-17-000-tons-of-nuclear-waste-in-search-of-a-home |archive-date=2017-05-17}}</ref> As of 2019, the [[United States]] has over 90,000 t of HLW.<ref>{{cite news |date=1 August 2019 |title=What should we do with radioactive nuclear waste? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/01/what-should-we-do-with-radioactive-nuclear-waste |work=The Guardian |location=London, England |language=en-uk}}</ref> HLW have been shipped to other countries to be stored or reprocessed and, in some cases, shipped back as active fuel.

The ongoing controversy over [[High-level radioactive waste management|high-level radioactive waste disposal]] is a major constraint on nuclear power global expansion.<ref name=finlay10 /> Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |title=Radioactive Waste Management &#124; Nuclear Waste Disposal |date=July 2015 |publisher=World Nuclear Association |access-date=2015-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201064831/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Radioactive-Waste-Management/ |archive-date=2016-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/presidential-commission-seeks-volunteers-to-store-nuclear-waste/ |title=Presidential Commission Seeks Volunteers to Store U.S. Nuclear Waste |author=Biello, David |date=Jul 29, 2011 |work=Scientific American |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226154256/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/presidential-commission-seeks-volunteers-to-store-nuclear-waste/ |archive-date=2014-02-26}}</ref> As of 2019, no dedicated civilian high-level nuclear waste site is operational<ref name=finlay10>{{cite web |url=http://acuns.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/NuclearEnergyFuture.pdf |title=Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation: Overview |author=Findlay, Trevor |year=2010 |work=Nuclear energy futures project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307175133/http://acuns.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/NuclearEnergyFuture.pdf |archive-date=2014-03-07 |access-date=2015-08-10}}</ref> as small amounts of HLW did not justify the investment in the past. Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of the [[Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository]], which is planned to open in 2025 at 400–450 m depth. France is in the planning phase for a 500 m deep Cigeo facility in Bure. Sweden is planning a site in [[Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant|Forsmark]]. Canada plans a 680 m deep facility near Lake Huron in Ontario. The Republic of Korea plans to open a site around 2028.<ref name=":0" /> The site in Sweden enjoys 80% support from local residents as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Belgium |first=Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels |date=23 January 2018 |title=Sweden / 'More Than 80%' Approve Of SKB's Spent Fuel Repository Plans |url=https://www.nucnet.org/news/more-than-80-approve-of-skb-s-spent-fuel-repository-plans-5-3-2020 |access-date=2020-05-08 |website=The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency}}</ref>

The [[Morris Operation]] in [[Grundy County, Illinois]], is currently the only ''de facto'' high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.

=== Transuranic waste ===
{{main|Transuranic waste}}
{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=November 2013}}
Transuranic waste (TRUW) as defined by U.S. regulations is, without regard to form or origin, waste that is contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranic [[radionuclide]]s with [[half-lives]] greater than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100&nbsp;[[Nanocurie|nCi]]/g (3.7&nbsp;[[MBq]]/kg), excluding high-level waste. Elements that have an atomic number greater than uranium are called transuranic ("beyond uranium"). Because of their long half-lives, TRUW is disposed of more cautiously than either low- or intermediate-level waste. In the United States, it arises mainly from nuclear weapons production, and consists of clothing, tools, rags, residues, debris, and other items contaminated with small amounts of radioactive elements (mainly [[plutonium]]).

Under U.S. law, transuranic waste is further categorized into "contact-handled" (CH) and "remote-handled" (RH) on the basis of the radiation dose rate measured at the surface of the waste container. CH TRUW has a surface dose rate not greater than 200 [[mrem]] per hour (2&nbsp;mSv/h), whereas RH TRUW has a surface dose rate of 200&nbsp;mrem/h (2&nbsp;mSv/h) or greater. CH TRUW does not have the very high radioactivity of high-level waste, nor its high heat generation, but RH TRUW can be highly radioactive, with surface dose rates up to 1,000,000&nbsp;mrem/h (10,000&nbsp;mSv/h). The United States currently disposes of TRUW generated from military facilities at the [[Waste Isolation Pilot Plant]] (WIPP) in a deep salt formation in [[New Mexico]].<ref>[http://www.wipp.energy.gov/fctshts/whywipp.pdf Why Wipp?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517054021/http://www.wipp.energy.gov/fctshts/whywipp.pdf |date=2006-05-17 }}. wipp.energy.gov</ref>