Editing Permian (section)

=== Flora ===
[[File:The World of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary.svg|left|thumb|290x290px|Map of the world at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary, showing the four floristic provinces]]
Four [[Phytochorion|floristic provinces]] in the Permian are recognised, the [[Angaraland|Angaran]], Euramerican, Gondwanan, and Cathaysian realms.<ref name="Wang-2012">{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=J.|last2=Pfefferkorn|first2=H. W.|last3=Zhang|first3=Y.|last4=Feng|first4=Z.|date=2012-03-27|title=Permian vegetational Pompeii from Inner Mongolia and its implications for landscape paleoecology and paleobiogeography of Cathaysia|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=13|pages=4927–4932|doi=10.1073/pnas.1115076109|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3323960|pmid=22355112|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse|Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse]] would result in the replacement of [[Lycopodiopsida|lycopsid]]-dominated forests with [[Tree fern|tree-fern]] dominated ones during the late Carboniferous in Euramerica, and result in the differentiation of the Cathaysian floras from those of Euramerica.<ref name="Wang-2012" /> The Gondwanan floristic region was dominated by [[Glossopteridales]], a group of woody gymnosperm plants, for most of the Permian, extending to high southern latitudes. The ecology of the most prominent glossopterid, ''[[Glossopteris]]'', has been compared to that of [[Taxodium distichum|bald cypress]], living in [[mire]]s with waterlogged soils.<ref name="McLoughlin-2012">{{cite journal|last1=McLoughlin|first1=S|year=2012|title=Glossopteris – insights into the architecture and relationships of an iconic Permian Gondwanan plant|journal=Journal of the Botanical Society of Bengal|volume=65|issue=2|pages=1–14}}</ref> The tree-like [[calamites]], distant relatives of modern [[Equisetum|horsetails]], lived in coal swamps and grew in [[bamboo]]-like vertical thickets. A mostly complete specimen of ''[[Arthropitys]]'' from the Early Permian [[Chemnitz petrified forest]] of Germany demonstrates that they had complex branching patterns similar to modern [[angiosperm]] trees.<ref name="Feng-2017">{{Cite journal|last=Feng|first=Zhuo|date=September 2017|title=Late Palaeozoic plants|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=27|issue=17|pages=R905–R909|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.07.041|pmid=28898663|issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017CBio...27.R905F }}</ref> By the Late Permian, high thin forests had become widespread across the globe, as evidenced by the global distribution of weigeltisaurids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bulanov |first1=V. V. |last2=Sennikov |first2=A. G. |date=16 December 2010 |title=New data on the morphology of permian gliding weigeltisaurid reptiles of Eastern Europe |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S0031030110060109 |journal=[[Paleontological Journal]] |language=en |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=682–694 |doi=10.1134/S0031030110060109 |bibcode=2010PalJ...44..682B |issn=0031-0301 |access-date=17 July 2024 |via=Springer Link}}</ref>

[[File:Diorama of a Permian forest floor - Eryops (45651934102).jpg|thumb|[[Life reconstruction]] of Permian [[wetland]] environment, showing an ''[[Eryops]]'']]
The oldest likely record of [[Ginkgoales]] (the group containing ''[[Ginkgo]]'' and its close relatives) is ''Trichopitys heteromorpha'' from the earliest Permian of France.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Zhi-Yan|date=March 2009|title=An overview of fossil Ginkgoales|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1871174X0900002X|journal=Palaeoworld|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1016/j.palwor.2009.01.001|access-date=2021-03-25|archive-date=2020-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601090659/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1871174X0900002X|url-status=live}}</ref> The oldest known fossils definitively assignable to modern [[cycad]]s are known from the Late Permian.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Feng|first1=Zhuo|last2=Lv|first2=Yong|last3=Guo|first3=Yun|last4=Wei|first4=Hai-Bo|last5=Kerp|first5=Hans|date=November 2017|title=Leaf anatomy of a late Palaeozoic cycad|url= |journal=Biology Letters|language=en|volume=13|issue=11|pages=20170456|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2017.0456|issn=1744-9561|pmc=5719380|pmid=29093177}}</ref> In Cathaysia, where a wet tropical frost-free climate prevailed, the [[Noeggerathiales]], an extinct group of tree fern-like [[progymnosperm]]s were a common component of the flora<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pfefferkorn|first1=Hermann W.|last2=Wang|first2=Jun|date=April 2016|title=Paleoecology of Noeggerathiales, an enigmatic, extinct plant group of Carboniferous and Permian times|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031018215006884|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|language=en|volume=448|pages=141–150|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.11.022|bibcode=2016PPP...448..141P|access-date=2021-03-25|archive-date=2018-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628232235/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031018215006884|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Jun|last2=Wan|first2=Shan|last3=Kerp|first3=Hans|last4=Bek|first4=Jiří|last5=Wang|first5=Shijun|date=March 2020|title=A whole noeggerathialean plant Tingia unita Wang from the earliest Permian peat-forming flora, Wuda Coalfield, Inner Mongolia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034666719303185|journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology|volume=294|language=en|pages=104204|doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2020.104204|s2cid=216381417|access-date=2021-03-25|archive-date=2022-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023233804/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034666719303185|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest Permian (~ 298 million years ago) Cathyasian Wuda Tuff flora, representing a coal swamp community, has an upper canopy consisting of [[lycopsid]] tree ''[[Sigillaria]],'' with a lower canopy consisting of [[Marattiaceae|Marattialean]] tree ferns, and Noeggerathiales.<ref name="Wang-2012" /> Early [[conifer]]s appeared in the Late Carboniferous, represented by primitive [[walchia]]n conifers, but were replaced with more derived [[Voltziales|voltzialeans]] during the Permian. Permian conifers were very similar morphologically to their modern counterparts, and were adapted to stressed dry or seasonally dry climatic conditions.<ref name="Feng-2017" /> The increasing aridity, especially at low latitudes, facilitated the spread of conifers and their increasing prevalence throughout terrestrial ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forte |first1=Giuseppa |last2=Kustatscher |first2=Evelyn |last3=Roghi |first3=Guido |last4=Preto |first4=Nereo |date=15 April 2018 |title=The Permian (Kungurian, Cisuralian) palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the Tregiovo Basin, Italy: Palaeobotanical, palynological and geochemical investigations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217308805 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=495 |pages=186–204 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.01.012 |bibcode=2018PPP...495..186F |access-date=22 December 2022 |archive-date=23 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223070245/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217308805 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bennettitales]], which would go on to become in widespread the Mesozoic, first appeared during the Cisuralian in China.<ref name="Blomenkemper-2021">{{Cite journal|last1=Blomenkemper|first1=Patrick|last2=Bäumer|first2=Robert|last3=Backer|first3=Malte|last4=Abu Hamad|first4=Abdalla|last5=Wang|first5=Jun|last6=Kerp|first6=Hans|last7=Bomfleur|first7=Benjamin|date=2021|title=Bennettitalean Leaves From the Permian of Equatorial Pangea—The Early Radiation of an Iconic Mesozoic Gymnosperm Group|journal=Frontiers in Earth Science|language=English|volume=9|page=162|doi=10.3389/feart.2021.652699|bibcode=2021FrEaS...9..162B|issn=2296-6463|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Lyginopteridales|Lyginopterids]], which had declined in the late Pennsylvanian and subsequently have a patchy fossil record, survived into the Late Permian in Cathaysia and equatorial east Gondwana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zavialova|first1=Natalia|last2=Blomenkemper|first2=Patrick|last3=Kerp|first3=Hans|last4=Hamad|first4=Abdalla Abu|last5=Bomfleur|first5=Benjamin|date=2021-03-04|title=A lyginopterid pollen organ from the upper Permian of the Dead Sea region|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00173134.2020.1772360|journal=Grana|language=en|volume=60|issue=2|pages=81–96|doi=10.1080/00173134.2020.1772360|bibcode=2021Grana..60...81Z |s2cid=224931916|issn=0017-3134|access-date=2021-04-16|archive-date=2021-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814143451/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00173134.2020.1772360|url-status=live}}</ref>