Editing Nilo-Saharan languages (section)

==Phonology==
Nilo-Saharan languages present great differences, being a highly diversified group. It has proven difficult to reconstruct many aspects of Proto-Nilo-Saharan. Two very different reconstructions of the proto-language have been proposed by [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] and [[Christopher Ehret]].

===Bender's reconstruction===
The consonant system reconstructed by Bender for Proto-Nilo-Saharan is:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan="2" | [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[plosive consonant|plosive]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t, *t₂}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*k, *kʰ}}
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*b}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d, *d₂}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɟ}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*g}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[fricative consonant|fricative]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*f}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*s}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[liquid consonant|liquid]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r, *l}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r₂}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[nasal consonant|nasal]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*m}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ŋ}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[semivowel]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*w}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*j}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

The phonemes {{IPA|/*d₂, *t₂/}} correspond to coronal plosives, the phonetic details are difficult to specify, but clearly, they remain distinct from {{IPA|/*d, *t/}} and supported by many phonetic correspondences (another author, Cristopher Ehret, reconstructs for the coronal area the sound {{IPA|[d̪], [ḍ]}} and {{IPA|[t̪], [ṭ]}} which perhaps are closer to the phonetic detail of {{IPA|/*d₂, *t₂/}}, see infra)

Bender gave a list of about 350 [[cognate]]s and discussed in depth the grouping and the phonological system proposed by Ehret. Blench (2000) compares both systems (Bender's and Ehret's) and prefers the former because it is more secure and is based in more reliable data.<ref name="Blench 2000">[[Roger Blench|Blench, Roger M.]] (2000) [http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology%20data/Africa/Blench%20Chapter%203.pdf "The classification of Nilo-Saharan"] (Afrika und Übersee 83). p. 299.{{dead link|date=November 2018}}</ref> For example, Bender points out that there is a set of phonemes including [[implosive consonant|implosives]] {{IPA|/*ɓ, *ɗ, *ʄ, *ɠ/}}, [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] {{IPA|/*pʼ, *tʼ, (*sʼ), *cʼ, *kʼ/}} and prenasal constants {{IPA|/*ᵐb, *ⁿd, (*ⁿt), *ⁿɟ, *ᵑg/}}, but it seems that they can be reconstructed only for core groups (E, I, J, L) and the collateral group (C, D, F, G, H), but not for Proto-Nilo-Saharan.

===Ehret's reconstruction===
[[Christopher Ehret]] used a less clear methodology and proposed a maximalist phonemic system:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
! [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[alveolar consonant|Alveol.]]
! [[retroflex consonant|Retrof.]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="5" |[[plosive]]
! <small>[[implosive consonant|implosive]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɓ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɗ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɗ̣}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɠ}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>voiced</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*b}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*d}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ḍ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*g}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>voiceless</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*p}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭ}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*k}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirate]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*pʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪ʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*tʰ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭʰ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*kʰ}}
|
|- align=center
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*pʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*t̪ʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*tʼ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṭʼ}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*kʼ}}
|
|- align=center
! colspan="2" |[[fricative]]
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*θ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*s, *z}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ṣ}}
| 
| 
| 
|- align=center
! rowspan="2" |[[nasal consonant|nasal]]
! <small>simple</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*m}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*n}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ɲ}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ŋ}}
| 
|- align=center
! <small>prenasal</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿb}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿð}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿd}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿḍ}}
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ⁿg}}
| 
|- align=center
! colspan="2" |[[liquid consonant|liquid]]
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*l̪}}
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*r, *l}}
| 
| 
|
|- align=center
! rowspan="2" |[[approximant]]
! <small>plain</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*w}}
|
|
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*j}}
|
| 
|- align=center
! <small>complex</small>
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ʼw}}
|
|
| 
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*ʼj}}
|
| style="font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|*h}}
|}
Ehret's maximalist system has been criticized by [[Lionel Bender|Bender]] and [[Roger Blench|Blench]]. These authors state that the correspondences used by Ehret are not very clear and because of this many of the sounds in the table may only be allophonic variations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blench|first=Roger|date=2004|title=Review of The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800|journal=The African Archaeological Review|volume=21|issue=4|pages=239–242|issn=0263-0338|jstor=25130809|doi=10.1007/s10437-004-0752-7|s2cid=162354153}}</ref>