Editing Mountaineering (section)

==Safety and hazards==
{{Main|Hazards of outdoor recreation}}
{{see also|List of deaths on eight-thousanders}}Mountaineers face a variety of [[hazard]]s. When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, ''objective'' (mountain-based) and ''subjective (human-based)''. Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of [[Exposure (climbing)|exposure]], and other environmental conditions.<ref name="tour crit"/> Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning.<ref name="Kublak2014" />

In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-[[avalanche]]s, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{Cite report |last1=Cymerman, A |last2=Rock, PB |title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976 |publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |id=USARIEM-TN94-2 |access-date=5 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042510/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976 |archive-date=23 April 2009 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

From 1947 to 2018 in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death."<ref name="14 June 2022">{{cite journal |author1=Emma P. DeLoughery|author2=Thomas G. DeLoughery
|date=14 June 2022
|title=Review and Analysis of Mountaineering Accidents in the United States from 1947–2018
|url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ham.2021.0085#B8
|journal=High Altitude Medicine & Biology
|volume=23
|issue=2
|pages=114–118 
|doi=10.1089/ham.2021.0085
|pmid=35263173
|s2cid=247361980
|access-date=11 July 2022
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711104944/https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ham.2021.0085|archive-date=11 July 2022}}</ref> Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.<ref name="freedom" />

When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to [[Mitigation|mitigate]] those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot [[Confirmation bias|personal bias]].<ref name="freedom" />

===Altitude===
[[File:Climber Summit Manaslu 8163m.jpg|thumb|Climber approaching the summit of [[Manaslu]] at 8,163 metres]]
Rapid ascent can lead to [[altitude sickness]].<ref name=MedicalProblems/><ref name="BordenHACE">{{Cite book |last1=Roach, Robert |title=Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |last2=Stepanek, Jan |last3=Hackett, Peter. |year=2002 |volume=2 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |chapter=24 |access-date=5 January 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the [[Andes]], the chewing of [[coca]] leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Biondich|first1=Amy Sue|last2=Joslin|first2=Jeremy D.|date=December 2015|title=Coca: High Altitude Remedy of the Ancient Incas|journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=567–571|doi=10.1016/j.wem.2015.07.006|pmid=26507611|s2cid=33306058 |issn=1080-6032|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE ([[high-altitude cerebral edema]]) and HAPE ([[high-altitude pulmonary edema]]), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.<ref name=MedicalProblems/><ref name=BordenHACE/><ref name="BordenHAPE">{{Cite book |last1=Roach, James M. |title=High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |last2=Schoene, Robert B. |year=2002 |volume=2 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |chapter=25 |access-date=5 January 2009 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.<ref name=MedicalProblems/> This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to [[Acclimatization|acclimatise]], even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.<ref name="Acclimatization">{{Cite journal |last1=Muza, SR |last2=Fulco, CS |last3=Cymerman, A |year=2004 |title=Altitude Acclimatization Guide. |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |journal=US Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |issue=USARIEM–TN–04–05 |access-date=5 March 2009 |archive-date=23 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042451/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Generally speaking, mountaineers start using [[bottled oxygen]] when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed [[Eight-thousander|8000-metre peaks]] (including [[Mount Everest|Everest]]) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szymczak |first1=Robert K. |last2=Marosz |first2=Michał |last3=Grzywacz |first3=Tomasz |last4=Sawicka |first4=Magdalena |last5=Naczyk |first5=Marta |date=2021 |title=Death Zone Weather Extremes Mountaineers Have Experienced in Successful Ascents |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2021.696335 |pmid=34290622 |pmc=8287323 |issn=1664-042X |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Heat-related conditions ===
Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body. A [[heat-related illness]] can occur when the body is unable to lose that heat through the skin.<ref name="freedom" />

Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include [[heat cramps]], [[heat exhaustion]], and [[heat stroke]]. Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse. The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.<ref name="freedom" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Carline |first=Jan D. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1131535523 |title=Mountaineering first aid : a guide to accident response and first aid care |date=2004 |publisher=Mountaineers Books |isbn=0-89886-878-5 |oclc=1131535523}}</ref>

Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures. This is a life-threatening illness that must be dealt with right away. While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.<ref name="freedom" /><ref name=":0" />

=== Cold-related conditions ===
In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction. A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Wilkerson |first1=James A. |last2=C. Bangs |first2=Cameron |last3=Hayward |first3=John S. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/13062884 |title=Hypothermia, Frostbite, and Other Cold Injuries : Prevention, Recognition, and Prehospital Treatment |date=1986 |publisher=The Mountaineers |isbn=0-89886-024-5 |oclc=13062884}}</ref>

Problems that can arise from the cold include [[wind chill]], [[hypothermia]], frost nip, [[frostbite]], and [[Immersion foot syndromes|immersion foot]].<ref name="freedom" />

The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear. Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions. Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021-10-16 |title=Cold Injuries: Practice Essentials, Overview, Systemic Hypothermia |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1278523-overview|website=eMedicine}}</ref>