Editing Moose (section)

====Decline in population====
Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of [[Temperate climate|temperate]] North America, although they remain stable in [[Arctic]] and [[subarctic]] regions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/moose-die-off-not-seen-in-yukon-where-populations-stable-1.2055719|title='Moose die-off' not seen in Yukon, where populations stable|date=October 16, 2013|work=cbc.ca|access-date=December 15, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230234825/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/moose-die-off-not-seen-in-yukon-where-populations-stable-1.2055719|archive-date=December 30, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and [[parasite]]s from [[white-tailed deer]] to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as [[liver fluke]]s, [[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis|brain worms]] and [[winter tick]] infestations.<ref name="Robbins"/><ref>{{cite web |author= credits [[Hari Sreenivasan]] |title= What's devastating the wild moose population in New England? |work= PBS Newshour |access-date= April 8, 2014 |date= April 7, 2014 |url= https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/alarming-decline-wild-moose-new-hampshire/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140408100853/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/alarming-decline-wild-moose-new-hampshire/ |archive-date= April 8, 2014 |url-status= live }}</ref> Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant.<ref>Brockman, Christopher J., William B. Collins, Jeffery M. Welker, Donald E. Spalinger, and Bruce W. Dale. "Determining kill rates of ungulate calves by brown bears using neck-mounted cameras." ''Wildlife Society Bulletin'' '''41''', no. 1 (2017): 88-97.</ref> Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Alexandra L. |last2=Procter |first2=Chris |last3=Kuzyk |first3=Gerald |last4=Fisher |first4=Jason T. |title=Female Moose Prioritize Forage Over Mortality Risk in Harvested Landscapes |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |date=January 2021 |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=156–168 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.21963|bibcode=2021JWMan..85..156F |s2cid=226361594 }}</ref> An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, non-hunting declines in moose populations at the southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of [[Global warming|human-induced climate change]].<ref name="scientific american article on moose decline in minnesota">{{cite news |last= Cusick |first= Daniel |title= Rapid Climate Changes Turn North Woods into Moose Graveyard |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rapid-climate-changes-turn-north-woods-into-moose-graveyard/ |access-date= January 8, 2018 |work= Scientific American |publisher= Springer Nature |date= May 18, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180108121953/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rapid-climate-changes-turn-north-woods-into-moose-graveyard/ |archive-date= January 8, 2018 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between {{cvt|14|and|24|°C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCann |first1=N.P. |last2=Moen |first2=R.A. |last3=Harris |first3=T.R. |title=Warm-season heat stress in moose (''Alces alces'') |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=October 30, 2013 |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=893–898 |doi=10.1139/cjz-2013-0175 |bibcode=2013CaJZ...91..893M |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/biology/documents/Moen1.pdf |access-date=January 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113070553/http://www.d.umn.edu/biology/documents/Moen1.pdf |archive-date=November 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11&nbsp;°C (1.5–2&nbsp;°F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America.<ref name="scientific american article on moose decline in minnesota"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rempel |first1=Robert S. |title= Effects of climate change on moose populations: Exploring the response horizon through biometric and systems models |journal= Ecological Modelling |date=September 24, 2011 |volume=222 |issue=18 |pages= 3355–3365 |doi= 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.07.012 |bibcode=2011EcMod.222.3355R }}</ref> The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200{{when|date=November 2020}} from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Debow |first1=Jacob |last2=Blouin |first2=Joshua |last3=Rosenblatt |first3=Elias |last4=Alexander |first4=Cedric |last5=Gieder |first5=Katherina |last6=Cottrell |first6=Walter |last7=Murdoch |first7=James |last8=Donovan |first8=Therese |date=2021-08-02 |title=Effects of Winter Ticks and Internal Parasites on Moose Survival in Vermont, USA |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=85 |issue=7 |pages=1423–1439 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.22101 |s2cid=236985989 |issn=0022-541X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021JWMan..85.1423D }}</ref> Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off. Locals call them ghost moose.<ref>{{cite web |last= Kusnetz |first= Nicholas |url= https://insideclimatenews.org/news/24052017/climate-change-ticks-killing-new-england-moose-hunters |title= Climate Change Is Killing New England's Moose. Can Hunters Save Them? |publisher= InsideClimate News |date= May 29, 2017 |access-date= June 4, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180520124800/https://insideclimatenews.org/news/24052017/climate-change-ticks-killing-new-england-moose-hunters |archive-date= May 20, 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |title=Ticks are killing 70 percent of moose calves across Maine, N.H. |newspaper=The Boston Globe |date=January 13, 2017 |access-date=June 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622165038/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |archive-date=June 22, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-18/moose-new-england-face-grisly-deaths-tick-infestations |title= Moose in New England face grisly deaths from tick infestations |publisher= Pri.org |date= March 18, 2017 |access-date= June 4, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180520124651/https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-18/moose-new-england-face-grisly-deaths-tick-infestations |archive-date= May 20, 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= MacQuarrie |first= Brian |url= https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |title= Ticks devastate Maine, N.H. moose populations |work= [[The Boston Globe]] |date= January 13, 2017 |access-date= January 16, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240729125757/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |archive-date= 2024-07-29 |url-status= live }}</ref> Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter.<ref>Samuel, W. M. "Grooming by moose (''Alces alces'') infested with the winter tick, Dermacentor albipictus (Acari): a mechanism for premature loss of winter hair." ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' '''69''', no. 5 (1991): 1255-1260.</ref>