Editing Mark Antony (section)

===Antony's Parthian War===
{{main|Antony's Parthian War}}

====Roman–Parthian relations====
[[File:Parthia 001ad.jpg|thumb|450px|A map of the [[Parthian Empire]] and [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Both states shared their western borders along the Euphrates River with Rome.]]

The rise of the [[Parthian Empire]] in the 3rd century BC and Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean during the 2nd century BC brought the two powers into direct contact, causing centuries of tumultuous and strained relations. Though periods of peace developed cultural and commercial exchanges, war was a constant threat. Influence over the [[buffer state]] of the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]], located to the north-east of [[Roman Syria]], was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, [[Tigranes the Great]], a Parthian ally, became king. Tigranes would later aid [[Mithridatic Wars|Mithradates of Pontus against Rome]] before being decisively defeated by [[Pompey]] in 66 BC.<ref>Scullard, 1984, p. 106</ref> Thereafter, with his son [[Artavasdes II of Armenia|Artavasdes]] in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC. Rome then released Artavasdes, who succeeded his father as king.

In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria, [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], led an expedition across the [[Euphrates]] River into Parthian territory to confront the Parthian Shah [[Orodes II]]. Artavasdes II offered Crassus the aid of nearly forty thousand troops to assist his Parthian expedition on the condition that Crassus invade through Armenia as the safer route.<ref>Plutarch. ''Life of Crassus''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html 19.1–3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410020040/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html |date=10 April 2020 }}.</ref> Crassus refused, choosing instead the more direct route by crossing the Euphrates directly into desert Parthian territory. Crassus' actions proved disastrous as his army was defeated at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] by a numerically inferior Parthian force. Crassus' defeat forced Armenia to shift its loyalty to Parthia, with Artavasdes II's sister marrying Orodes' son and heir [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus]].<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Crassus'' 19; 22; 33.</ref>

In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his intentions to invade Parthia and restore Roman power in the East. His reasons were to punish the Parthians for assisting Pompey in the [[Caesar's Civil War|recent civil war]], to avenge Crassus' defeat at Carrhae, and especially to match the glory of [[Alexander the Great]] for himself.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 820</ref> Before Caesar could launch his campaign, however, he was assassinated. As part of the compromise between Antony and the Republicans to restore order following Caesar's murder, [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]] was assigned the governorship of Syria and command over Caesar's planned Parthian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and the republicans were forced to flee to the East. The republicans directed [[Quintus Labienus]] to attract the Parthians to their side in the [[Liberators' civil war|resulting war against Antony and Octavian]]. After the ''liberatores'' were defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]], Labienus joined the Parthians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morello |first=Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |title=Titus Labienus et Cingulum, Quintus Labienus Parthicus Volume 9 of Nummus et historia |publisher=Circolo numismatico Mario Rasile |year=2005 |access-date=16 November 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819124625/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk_YgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coins of Rome about Parthia: Quintus Labienus (42–39 B.C.) |url=http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803183606/http://www.parthia.com/labienus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite Rome's internal turmoil during the time, the Parthians did not immediately benefit from the [[power vacuum]] in the East due to Orodes II's reluctance despite Labienus' urgings to the contrary.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857">Hinard, 2000, p. 857</ref>

In the summer of 41 BC, Antony, to reassert Roman power in the East, conquered [[Palmyra]] on the Roman-Parthian border.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 857" /> Antony then spent the winter of 41 BC in Alexandria with Cleopatra, leaving only two legions to defend the Syrian border against Parthian incursions. The legions, however, were composed of former Republican troops and Labienus convinced Orodes II to invade.

====Parthian Invasion====
{{main|Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC}}
[[File:Aureus of Antony & Octavian, 40 BC.jpg|thumb|295x295px|Roman [[aureus]] bearing the portraits of Marcus Antonius (left) and [[Octavian]]us (right), issued to celebrate their reconciliation in October 40&nbsp;BC.]]
A Parthian army, led by Orodes II's eldest son [[Pacorus I of Parthia|Pacorus]], invaded [[Roman Syria|Syria]] in early 40 BC. Labienus, the Republican ally of Brutus and Cassius, accompanied him to advise him and to rally the former Republican soldiers stationed in Syria to the Parthian cause. Labienus recruited many of the former Republican soldiers to the Parthian campaign in opposition to Antony. The joint Parthian–Roman force, after initial success in Syria, separated to lead their offensive in two directions: Pacorus marched south toward [[Hasmonean Judea]] while Labienus crossed the [[Taurus Mountains]] to the north into [[Roman Cilicia|Cilicia]]. Labienus conquered southern [[Anatolia]] with little resistance. The Roman governor of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]], a partisan of Antony, was forced to flee his province, allowing Labienus to recruit the Roman soldiers stationed there. For his part, Pacorus advanced south to [[Phoenicia]] and [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]]. In [[Hasmonean Judea]], the exiled prince [[Antigonus the Hasmonean|Antigonus]] allied himself with the Parthians. When his brother, Rome's client king [[Hyrcanus II]], refused to accept Parthian domination, he was deposed in favor of Antigonus as Parthia's client king in Judea. Pacorus' conquest had captured much of the Syrian and Palestinian interior, with much of the Phoenician coast occupied as well. The city of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] remained the last major Roman outpost in the region.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 858">Hinard, 2000, p. 858</ref>

Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the Parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of [[Perusine War|the civil war between his wife and Octavian]], he was forced to return to Italy with his army to secure his position in Rome rather than defeat the Parthians.<ref name="Hinard, 2000, pg 858" /> Instead, Antony dispatched [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]] to check the Parthian advance. Arriving in the East in spring 39 BC, Ventidius surprised Labienus near the [[Taurus Mountains]], claiming victory at [[Battle of the Cilician Gates|the Cilician Gates]]. Ventidius ordered Labienus executed as a traitor and the formerly rebellious Roman soldiers under his command were reincorporated under Antony's control. He then met a Parthian army at the border between Cilicia and Syria, defeating it and killing a large portion of the Parthian soldiers at [[Battle of Amanus Pass|the Amanus Pass]]. Ventidius' actions temporarily halted the Parthian advance and restored Roman authority in the East, forcing Pacorus to abandon his conquests and return to Parthia.<ref>Hinard, 2000, p. 877</ref>

In the spring of 38 BC, the Parthians resumed their offensive with Pacorus leading an army across the Euphrates. Ventidius, in order to gain time, leaked [[disinformation]] to Pacorus implying that he should cross the Euphrates River at their usual ford. Pacorus did not trust this information and decided to cross the river much farther downstream; this was what Ventidius hoped would occur and gave him time to get his forces ready.<ref>Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', pp.  1239</ref> The Parthians faced no opposition and proceeded to the town of [[Gindarus]] in [[Cyrrhestica]] where Ventidius' army was waiting. At the [[Battle of Cyrrhestica]], Ventidius inflicted an overwhelming defeat against the Parthians which resulted in the death of Pacorus. Overall, the Roman army had achieved a complete victory with Ventidius' three successive victories forcing the Parthians back across the Euphrates.<ref>Dando-Collins, 2008, pp. 36–39</ref> Pacorus' death threw the Parthian Empire into chaos. Shah Orodes II, overwhelmed by the grief of his son's death, appointed his younger son [[Phraates IV]] as his successor. However, Phraates IV assassinated Orodes II in late 38 BC, succeeding him on the throne.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 49, 23</ref><ref>Hinard, 2000, pp. 879, 883</ref>

Ventidius feared Antony's wrath if he invaded Parthian territory, thereby stealing his glory; so instead he attacked and subdued the eastern kingdoms, which had revolted against Roman control following the disastrous defeat of Crassus at Carrhae.<ref>Plutarch, ''Antony'', Chapter 34</ref> One such rebel was King [[Antiochus I of Commagene|Antiochus]] of [[Commagene]], whom he besieged in [[Samosata]]. Antiochus tried to make peace with Ventidius, but Ventidius told him to approach Antony directly. After peace was concluded, Antony sent Ventidius back to Rome where he celebrated a [[Roman triumph|triumph]], the first Roman to triumph over the Parthians.{{#tag:ref |After celebrating his triumph, Ventidius disappears from the historical record.|group="note"}}

====Conflict with Sextus Pompey====
[[File:Mark Antony and Octavia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Antony and Octavia on the [[obverse]] of a [[tetradrachm]] issued at Ephesus in 39 BC. Antony and his brother-in-law, Octavian, enacted a new treaty that year which redivided control over the Roman world.]]

While Antony and the other triumvirs ratified the [[Treaty of Brundisium]] to redivide the Roman world among themselves, the rebel [[Sextus Pompey]], the son of Caesar's rival [[Pompey the Great]], was largely ignored. From his stronghold on [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicily]], he continued his piratical activities across Italy and blocked the shipment of grain to Rome. The lack of food in Rome undermined the triumvirate's political support. This pressure forced the triumvirs to meet with Sextus in early 39 BC.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 69</ref>

While Octavian wanted an end to the ongoing blockade of Italy, Antony sought peace in the West in order to make the Triumvirate's legions available for his service in his planned campaign against the Parthians. Though the Triumvirs rejected Sextus' initial request to replace Lepidus as the third man in the triumvirate, they did grant other concessions. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Misenum]], Sextus was allowed to retain control over Sicily and [[Corsica et Sardinia|Sardinia]], with the provinces of [[Corsica et Sardinia|Corsica]] and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Greece]] being added to his territory. He was also promised a future position with the [[Augur|Priestly College of Augurs]] and the consulship for 35 BC. In exchange, Sextus agreed to end his naval blockade of Italy, supply Rome with grain, and halt his piracy of Roman merchant ships.<ref>Ward, Allen M., et al. A History of the Roman People. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 2003.</ref> However, the most important provision of the Treaty was the end of the [[proscription]] the trimumvirate had begun in late 43 BC. Many of the proscribed senators, rather than face death, fled to Sicily seeking Sextus' protection. With the exception of those responsible for Caesar's assassination, all those proscribed were allowed to return to Rome and promised compensation. This caused Sextus to lose many valuable allies as the formerly exiled senators gradually aligned themselves with either Octavian or Antony. To secure the peace, Octavian betrothed [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], Octavian's three-year-old nephew and Antony's stepson, to Sextus' daughter [[Pompeia (daughter of Sextus Pompeius)|Pompeia]].<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 73</ref> With peace in the West secured, Antony planned to retaliate against Parthia. Under an agreement with Octavian, Antony would be supplied with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Dionysus]] in 39 BC.

The peace with Sextus was short-lived, however. When Sextus demanded control over Greece as the agreement provided, Antony demanded the province's tax revenues be to fund the Parthian campaign. Sextus refused.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 77</ref> Meanwhile, Sextus' admiral [[Menas (freedman)|Menas]] betrayed him, shifting his loyalty to Octavian and thereby granting him control of Corsica, Sardinia, three of Sextus' legions, and a larger naval force. These actions worked to renew Sextus' blockade of Italy, preventing Octavian from sending the promised troops to Antony for the Parthian campaign. This new delay caused Antony to quarrel with Octavian, forcing [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]] to mediate a truce between them. Under the Treaty of Tarentum, Antony provided a large naval force for Octavian's use against Sextus while Octavian promised to raise new legions for Antony to support his invasion of Parthia.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'', Book 5, 95</ref> As the term of the Triumvirate was set to expire at the end of 38&nbsp;BC, the two unilaterally extended their term of office another five years until 33&nbsp;BC without seeking approval of the senate or the assemblies. To seal the Treaty, Antony's elder son [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus]], then only six years old, was betrothed to Octavian's only daughter [[Julia the Elder|Julia]], then only an infant. With the Treaty signed, Antony returned to the East, leaving Octavia in Italy.

====Reconquest of Judea====
With [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]] returned to Rome in triumph for his defensive campaign against the Parthians, Antony appointed [[Gaius Sosius]] as the new governor of Syria and Cilicia in early 38 BC. Antony, still in the West negotiating with Octavian, ordered Sosius to depose [[Antigonus II Mattathias|Antigonus]], who had been installed in the recent Parthian invasion as the ruler of [[Hasmonean Judea]], and to make [[Herod the Great|Herod]] the new Roman client king in the region. Years before in 40 BC, the Roman senate had proclaimed Herod "King of the Jews" because Herod had been a loyal supporter of [[Hyrcanus II]], Rome's previous client king before the Parthian invasion, and was from a [[Herodian dynasty|family with long standing connections to Rome]].<ref>Armstrong, p. 126</ref> The Romans hoped to use Herod as a bulwark against the Parthians in the coming campaign.<ref>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'', 1.14.4</ref>

Advancing south, Sosius captured the island-city of [[Arwad|Aradus]] on the coast of [[Phoenicia]] by the end of 38 BC. The following year, the Romans [[Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)|besieged Jerusalem]]. After a forty-day siege, the Roman soldiers stormed the city and, despite Herod's pleas for restraint, acted without mercy, pillaging and killing all in their path, prompting Herod to complain to Antony.<ref>Rocca, 2008, pp. 45–47</ref> Herod finally resorted to bribing Sosius and his troops in order that they would not leave him "king of a desert".<ref>Josephus, The Jewish Wars, 1:355</ref> Antigonus was forced to surrender to Sosius, and was sent to Antony for the [[Roman triumph|triumphal procession]] in Rome. Herod, however, fearing that Antigonus would win backing in Rome, bribed Antony to execute Antigonus. Antony, who recognized that Antigonus would remain a permanent threat to Herod, ordered him beheaded in [[Antioch]]. Now secure on his throne, Herod would rule the [[Herodian Kingdom]] until his death in 4 BC, and would be an ever-faithful client king of Rome.

====Parthian Campaign====
{{main|Antony's Parthian War}}

With the triumvirate renewed in 38 BC, Antony returned to Athens in the winter with his new wife [[Octavia Major|Octavia]], the sister of Octavian. With the assassination of the Parthian king [[Orodes II]] by his son [[Phraates IV]], who then seized the Parthian throne, in late 38 BC, Antony prepared to invade Parthia himself.[[File:Syd 1197.jpg|thumb|Marcus Antonius & Octavia Minor (sister of Augustus) Cistophorus - 39 BC]]Antony, however, realized Octavian had no intention of sending him the additional legions he had promised under the Treaty of Tarentum. To supplement his own armies, Antony instead looked to Rome's principal vassal in the East: his lover Cleopatra. In addition to significant financial resources, Cleopatra's backing of his Parthian campaign allowed Antony to amass the largest army Rome had ever assembled in the East. Wintering in [[Antioch]] during 37, Antony's combined Roman–Egyptian army numbered some 100,000, including 60,000 soldiers from sixteen legions, 10,000 cavalry from Spain and Gaul, plus an additional 30,000 auxiliaries.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mark Antony, a biography |last=Huzar |first=Eleanor Goltz |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1978 |url=https://archive.org/details/markantonybiogra00huza_0/page/176/mode/1up |page=176|isbn=9780816608638 }}</ref> The size of his army indicated Antony's intention to conquer Parthia, or at least receive its submission by capturing the Parthian capital of [[Ecbatana]]. Antony's rear was protected by Rome's client kingdoms in Anatolia, Syria, and Judea, while the client kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Commagene would provide supplies along the march.

Antony's first target for his invasion was the [[kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Ruled by King [[Artavasdes II of Armenia]], Armenia had been an ally of Rome since the defeat of [[Tigranes the Great]] by [[Pompey the Great]] in 66 BC during the [[Third Mithridatic War]]. However, following [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]]'s defeat at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in 53 BC, Armenia was forced into an alliance with Parthia due to Rome's weakened position in the East. Antony dispatched [[Publius Canidius Crassus]] to Armenia, receiving Artavasdes II's surrender without opposition. Canidius then led an invasion into the [[South Caucasus]], subduing [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]]. There, Canidius forced the Iberian King [[Pharnavaz II]] into an alliance against Zober, king of neighboring [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]], subduing the kingdom and reducing it to a Roman protectorate.

With Armenia and the Caucasus secured, Antony marched south, crossing into the Parthian province of [[Media Atropatene]]. Though Antony desired a pitched battle, the Parthians would not engage, allowing Antony to march deep into Parthian territory by mid-August of 36 BC. This forced Antony to leave his logistics train in the care of two legions (approximately 10,000 soldiers), which was then attacked and completely destroyed by the Parthian army before Antony could rescue them. Though the Armenian King Artavasdes II and his cavalry were present during the massacre, they did not intervene. Despite the ambush, Antony continued the campaign. However, Antony was soon forced to retreat in mid-October after a failed two-month siege of the provincial capital.

The retreat soon proved a disaster as Antony's demoralized army faced increasing supply difficulties in the mountainous terrain during winter while constantly being harassed by the Parthian army. According to [[Plutarch]], eighteen battles were fought between the retreating Romans and the Parthians during the month-long march back to Armenia, with approximately 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry dying during the retreat alone. Once in Armenia, Antony quickly marched back to [[Roman Syria|Syria]] to protect his interests there by late 36 BC, losing an additional 8,000 soldiers along the way. In all, two-fifths of his original army (some 80,000 men) had died during his failed campaign.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Plutarch |title=Antony |pages=50.1}}</ref> The narration of Strabo and Plutarch blames the Armenian king for the defeat, but modern sources note Antony's poor management.<ref name="iranica-antony">{{cite web |last1=Chaumont |first1=M. L. |title=ANTONY, MARK |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/antony-mark-roman-gencral-ca |website=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |date=5 August 2011 |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026082247/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/antony-mark-roman-gencral-ca |url-status=live }}</ref>