Editing Indian religions (section)

=== Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) ===
{{Main|Pala Empire|Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Met, india (uttar pradesh), gupta period, krishna battling the horse demon keshi, 5th century.JPG|thumb|upright|Krishna fighting the horse demon [[Keshi (demon)|Keshi]], 5th century, Gupta period.]]
[[File:Lalita statue.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A basalt statue of [[Tripura Sundari|Lalita]] flanked by [[Gaṇeśa]] and [[Kārttikeya]], Pala era.]]

Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period,{{sfn|Flood|1996}}{{sfn|Muesse|2011}} in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.{{sfn|Muesse|2011}} Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} which saw the rise of so-called "Classical Hinduism",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} with its "golden age"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} during the Gupta Empire.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}}

According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the [[Guptas]] (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the "Hindus synthesis", "Brahmanic synthesis", or "orthodox synthesis".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
{{blockquote|The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=13}}}}

The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent among these developers were [[Yoga]], [[Dvaita]], [[Advaita]], and the medieval [[Bhakti]] movement.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Smriti ====
The ''smriti'' texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and "nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=14}} Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic ''sruti'' tradition and are sometimes called ''smarta'' schools in the sense that they develop ''smarta'' orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like ''smriti'', directly on ''sruti''."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=18}} According to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of ''bhakti''."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=20}} It is the ''Bhagavadgita'' that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be called ''[[smarta]]''. It views Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in their functions but ontologically identical".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=20}}

==== Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE) ====
{{Main|Vedanta}}

In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers [[shabda]] [[pramāṇa]] ([[testimony|scriptural evidence]]) as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[pramana#Pratyakṣa|pratyakṣa]] ([[perception]]) and [[anumāna]] (logical [[inference]]) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}

The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by [[Vyasa|Badarāyana]] in the [[Brahma Sutras]] which was composed around 200 BCE.<ref>{{Citation |first=S. |last=Rādhākrishnan |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume II |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-563820-4}}</ref> The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=javanesegraviton |url=https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfEarlyVedantaPhilosophyHajimeNakamura/page/n13/mode/2up |title=A History Of Early Vedanta Philosophy Hajime Nakamura}}</ref>

==== Indian philosophy ====
{{Main|Indian philosophy}}

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mimāṃsā]] and [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated [[atheism in Hinduism|atheistic schools]]. The thoroughly [[materialism|materialistic]] and anti-religious philosophical [[Cārvāka]] school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a ''[[nāstika]]'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.<ref name="Radha227">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=227–249}}.</ref> Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.<ref name="RChatterjee55">{{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=55}}.</ref> Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Hindu literature ====
{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana|Puranas}}
[[File:Sripuram Temple Full View.jpg|thumb|The Golden Temple of [[Mahalakshmi]] at [[Vellore]].]]

Two of Hinduism's most revered ''epics'', the [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]] were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example, the ''Ganapati Purana'' was written for devotion to Ganapati (or [[Ganesha]]). Popular deities of this era were [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Durga]], [[Surya]], [[Murugan|Skanda]], and [[Ganesha]] (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as [[Puranas]] allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==== Jainism and Buddhism ====
{{Main|Buddhism and Jainism|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized [[Buddhism]], which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

There were several Buddhistic kings who [[Vaishnavism|worshiped Vishnu]], such as the [[Gupta Empire]], [[Pala Empire]], [[Chalukyas]], [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavanshi]], and [[Satavahana]].<ref>Durga Prasad, P. 116, ''History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D.''</ref> Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.<ref>''National Geographic'' January 2008, VOL. 213, NO. 1 "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}</ref>

==== Tantra ====
{{Main|Tantra}}

Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the [[Gupta period]]. According to Michaels this was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40-41}} (c. 320–650 CE{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40-41}}), which flourished during the Gupta Empire{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the [[Harsha]] Empire{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=687}} The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}}