Editing Hongwu Emperor (section)

==Changes in the 1380s==
[[File:Jinyiwei.jpg|thumb|left|An officer's badge of the ''Jinyiwei'' ([[Embroidered Uniform Guard]]), an elite guard regiment of the Forbidden City, serving as the secret police. The [[Capital Museum]], Beijing.]]
The decade of 1371–1380 was a period of consolidation and stability,{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=125}} but in 1380, the emperor initiated a new wave of reforms, taking direct and personal control, while also intensifying the terror against the elite.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=107}}

===The emperor's sons===
According to the emperor's decision, his sons, who were given the titles of princes (''wang''), were assigned military command on the border to protect the empire.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=118}} Along with receiving Confucian education, which emphasized moral values, the emperor's sons also learned about warfare. The emperor placed great importance on the education of his sons and entrusted it to scholars led by [[Song Lian]] and Kong Keren ({{zhi|c=孔克仁}}).{{sfnp|Chan|2007|pp=51–52}}

The decision to place his sons in charge of the army was made in order to diminish the influence of the military [[Nobiles|nobility]] on the state. The emperor was highly concerned about potential conspiracies among the generals, and, as seen in the cases of [[Hu Weiyong]] and [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]], a number of generals were executed.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=103}} The emperor's fears were not unfounded, as the threat of conspiracies among the generals was always present. He himself came to power through the betrayal of the heirs of Guo Zixing and later faced conspiracies from his subordinates.{{efn|For example, the rebellion of Shao Rong ({{zhi|t=邵榮}}) in 1362.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=67}}}}{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=67}}

The most capable military leaders among the princes were Zhu Di and Zhu Gang, later joined by Zhu Fu, [[Zhu Zhen (Ming dynasty)|Zhu Zhen]], [[Zhu Zhi (prince)|Zhu Zhi]], and Zhu Bai. Among the literary-minded imperial princes, [[Zhu Su]] stood out for his works on Yuan court poetry and medicinal plants, while [[Zhu Quan]] was known for his lyrical dramas and encyclopedias on alchemy and pharmacy. Other princes, such as Zhu Zi, Zhu Tan, Zhu Chun, and Zhu Bai, were also comfortable in the company of scholars and skilled in the art of war.{{sfnp|Chan|2007|p=54}} However, not all princes behaved properly, as seen in the cases of Zhu Shuang, Zhu Su, Zhu Fu, Zhu Zi, Zhu Tan, [[Zhu Gui (prince)|Zhu Gui]], and the emperor's great-nephew [[Zhu Shouqian]], who were often reprimanded by the emperor for their behavior.{{sfnp|Chan|2007|pp=54–55}}

In 1370, the emperor appointed nine oldest sons (after the heir to the throne) as princes.{{efn|At the same time, the emperor's great-nephew Zhu Shouqian (1364–1392) also became a prince (of Jingjiang).{{sfnp|Chan|2007|p=48}}}} Five more were appointed in 1378, and the remaining ten in 1391. Once they reached around twenty years of age, they were sent to their designated regions, with the first being sent in 1378. As they settled into their regions, their importance grew.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=148}} The most influential of these princes were the second, third, and fourth sons—Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, and Zhu Di—who were based in [[Xi'an]], [[Taiyuan]], and [[Beijing]] respectively. They were responsible for commanding the armies on the northern frontier.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=120}} Other members of the imperial family were not involved in the administration of the country, as there was a fear of repeating the dynastic disputes that were common during the Yuan dynasty.

===Reforms of the central government===
The structure of the civil administration, organized according to the Yuan model, partially distanced the emperor from direct exercise of power and did not satisfy him. In the early 1380s, he proceeded with a radical reorganization of the administrative apparatus, with the primary goal of centralization and increasing the ruler's personal power.{{sfnp|Yakobson|2000|pp=528–546}}

In 1380, Grand Chancellor Hu Weiyong was imprisoned and executed on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy against the emperor. As a result, his position and entire office ([[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]]) were abolished.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=192–193}}{{sfnp|Fairbank|Goldman|2006|p=130}} Furthermore, the emperor forbade its restoration permanently.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=105}} Six ministries were then placed directly under the emperor's control.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=105}} The Censorate was also temporarily abolished, and the unitary Chief Military Commission governing the armed forces was divided into five Chief Military Commissions, each controlling a portion of the troops in the capital and a fifth of the regions.{{sfnp|Yakobson|2000|pp=528–546}}{{sfnp|Hucker|1958|p=28}}{{sfnp|Chang|2007|p=15}} Additionally, twelve guards of the Imperial Guard in the capital were directly subordinate to the emperor. One of these guards, known as the [[Embroidered Uniform Guard]], acted as the secret police. This resulted in the fragmentation of state authority and the government, which immediately eliminated the possibility of a coup d'état but weakened the government's long-term ability to act.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=105}} 

After the major purge of 1380, smaller processes followed, targeting several ministers and deputy ministers, as well as the emperor's nephew Li Wenzhong and hundreds of less prominent individuals.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|pp=149–151}} The executions sparked a wave of protests from officials, who pointed to the demoralization of the state apparatus and the waste of human resources. The emperor did not punish the critics, but he also did not change his policies.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|pp=150, 155–156}}

===Domestic and foreign policy===
[[File:X Ming Dynasty Empress Ma of Taizu.JPG|thumb|Portrait of [[Empress Ma (Hongwu)|Empress Ma]], by Wu Chang ({{zhi|t=吳昶}}), 16th century. [[National Palace Museum]], Taipei.]]
In 1381, the ''lijia'' system was implemented throughout the country, and the Yellow Registers were introduced to revise the population records.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=125}} Additionally, a census was conducted.{{efn|During the census of 1381, a total of 59,873,305 people were counted, but due to the fact that the census was primarily used to determine tax obligations, many citizens deliberately avoided being counted. As a result, in 1391, only 56,774,561 people were officially recorded. The government, believing that the population must have increased during the ten years of peace and prosperity, ordered a recount in 1393. This time, the result was 60,545,812. However, it is estimated that the actual population was closer to 75 million.{{sfnp|Brook|1998|p=28}}}} As part of this system, tax collection was transferred to the ''li'', resulting in the abolishment of regional tax captains in 1382, but they were reinstated three years later. Regional tax captains collected taxes from the heads of the ''li''{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=126}} and delivered to state granaries. The ''li'' were responsible for covering expenses related to transportation, accounting, and supervision.{{sfnp|Huang|1998|p=135}}

The campaign against large landowners also targeted the new Ming officials. In 1380, land ownership of ministers and officials was reviewed, followed by a similar review in 1381 for holders of noble titles,{{sfnp|Li|2010|p=29}} including members of the imperial family. These individuals were required to return their acquired lands to the state and were compensated with rice and silk.{{sfnp|Li|2010|p=30}} This resulted in a long-lasting fragmentation of land ownership. Even two centuries later, He Liangjun ({{zhi|c=何良俊}}; 1506–1573) observed that there were no large landowners in Suzhou, and no one owned more than ten times the amount of land as a small peasant.{{sfnp|Li|2010|pp=30–31}}

In 1382, the emperor suffered a significant loss when Empress Ma died. That same year, the newly appointed head of the [[Court of Judicature and Revision]] criticized the emperor's support of Buddhist monks, their privileges at court, and their position in the government. As a result, the emperor limited their influence. At the same time, there was a growing support for [[Confucianism]], leading to the opening of [[Temple of Confucius|Confucius temples]] throughout the empire. These temples had previously been closed in 1369, with the exception of one in Confucius' birthplace.{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=146}} This shift towards Confucianism also resulted in the renewal of civil service examinations in 1384,{{sfnp|Langlois|1988|p=107}} with only required knowledge of the ''[[Four Books and Five Classics]]''. The promotion of Confucianism strengthened the emphasis on moral considerations in the management of the state, rather than solely focusing on economic factors.{{sfnp|Li|2010|p=24}}

The 1380s saw a significant increase in foreign policy activity.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=107}} In 1380 and 1381, the northern border troops launched large-scale expeditions beyond the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]].{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=107}}{{sfnp|Wakeman|1985|p=31}} In 1381, the Ming army, led by [[Fu Youde]], quickly conquered [[Yunnan]], but suppressing local uprisings kept Fu Youde's soldiers occupied for several more years. Additionally, a significant number of troops were needed to guard the coast against smugglers and pirates, delaying the offensive in the north until 1387.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=140}} The campaign into Manchuria in 1387 was ultimately successful, but the commanding general, [[Feng Sheng (general)|Feng Sheng]], was replaced by [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]]. In the 1388 campaign, Lan Yu's army of 200,000 decisively defeated the Mongols at the [[Songhua River]] and [[Buir Lake]].{{sfnp|Wakeman|1985|p=31}} The Chinese captured 73,000 Mongol warriors, including the Mongol crown prince and his younger brother. Mongol khan [[Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür|Tögüs Temür]] fled, but was assassinated the following year, leading to disputes over succession among his people. As a reward, Lan Yu was granted the title of duke, and six of his generals were made marquises.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=143}} The campaign also resulted in the annexation of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]].{{sfnp|Kavalski|2009|p=23}}