Editing History of Lebanon (section)

==Republic of Lebanon==
===Independence and following years===
The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a freely trading regional center for finance and trade. Beirut became a prime location for institutions of international commerce and finance, as well as wealthy tourists, and enjoyed a reputation as the "Paris of the Middle East" until the outbreak of the [[Lebanese Civil War]].

In the aftermath of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 [[Palestinian refugee camps|Palestinian refugees]].
[[File:Straatbeeld in Beiroet, Bestanddeelnr 255-6176.jpg|thumb|Beirut in 1950]]

===Economic prosperity and growing tensions===
In 1958, during the last months of President [[Camille Chamoun]]'s term, [[Lebanon crisis of 1958|an insurrection]] broke out, and 5,000 [[United States Marines]] were [[Operation Blue Bat|briefly dispatched]] to Beirut on July 15 in response to an appeal by the government. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general [[Fuad Chehab]].

During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm, with Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Lebanon reached the peak of its economic success in the mid–1960s—the country was seen as a bastion of economic strength by the oil-rich [[Persian Gulf]] Arab states, whose funds made Lebanon one of the world's fastest growing economies. This period of economic stability and prosperity was brought to an abrupt halt with the collapse of [[Yousef Beidas]]' [[Intra Bank]], the country's largest bank and financial backbone, in 1966.

Additional Palestinian refugees arrived after the [[Six-Day War|1967 Arab–Israeli War]]. Following their defeat in the [[Black September in Jordan|Jordanian civil war]], thousands of Palestinian militiamen regrouped in Lebanon, led by [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], with the intention of replicating the modus operandi of attacking Israel from a politically and militarily weak neighbour. Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants of various affiliations began to use southern Lebanon as a launching pad for attacks on Israel. Two of these attacks led to a watershed event in Lebanon's inchoate civil war. In July 1968, a faction of [[George Habash]]'s [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) [[El Al Flight 426 hijacking|hijacked an Israeli El Al civilian plane]] en route to Algiers; in December, two PFLP gunmen [[El Al Flight 253 attack|shot at an El Al plane in Athens]], resulting in the death of an Israeli.

As a result, two days later, [[1968 Israeli raid on Lebanon|an Israeli commando flew into Beirut's international airport]] and destroyed more than a dozen civilian airliners belonging to various Arab carriers. Israel defended its actions by informing the Lebanese government that it was responsible for encouraging the PFLP. The retaliation, which was intended to encourage a Lebanese government crackdown on Palestinian militants, instead polarized Lebanese society on the Palestinian question, deepening the divide between pro- and anti-Palestinian factions, with the Muslims leading the former grouping and Maronites primarily constituting the latter. This dispute reflected increasing tensions between Christian and Muslim communities over the distribution of political power, and would ultimately foment the outbreak of civil war in 1975.

In the interim, while armed Lebanese forces under the Maronite-controlled government sparred with Palestinian fighters, Egyptian leader [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamal Abd al-Nasser]] helped to negotiate the 1969 "[[Cairo Agreement (1969)|Cairo Agreement]]" between Arafat and the Lebanese government, which granted the PLO autonomy over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel in return for PLO recognition of Lebanese sovereignty. The agreement incited Maronite frustration over what were perceived as excessive concessions to the Palestinians, and pro-Maronite paramilitary groups were subsequently formed to fill the vacuum left by government forces, which were now required to leave the Palestinians alone. Notably, the [[Kataeb Party|Phalange]], a Maronite militia, rose to prominence around this time, led by members of the [[Gemayel family]].<ref>Smith (2006) pp. 310, 353.</ref>

In September 1970 [[Suleiman Franjieh]], who had left the country briefly for [[Latakia]] in the 1950s after being accused of killing hundreds of people including other Maronites, was elected president by a very narrow vote in parliament. In November, his personal friend [[Hafez al-Assad|Hafiz al-Assad]], who had received him during his exile, seized power in [[Syria]]. Later, in 1976, Franjieh would invite the Syrians into Lebanon.<ref>{{cite book |title=From the Holy Mountain: A Journey Among the Christians of the Middle East |last=Dalrymple |first= William |year=1997 |publisher=Vintage Books (Random House) |page=252|isbn=0006547745}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jHGYvr7rkrsC Reprint (possibly with different page numbers).]</ref>

For its part, the PLO used its new privileges to establish an effective "mini-state" in southern Lebanon, and to ramp up its attacks on settlements in northern Israel. Compounding matters, Lebanon received an influx of armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his [[Fatah]] movement, fleeing the 1970 Jordanian crackdown. The PLO's "vicious terrorist attacks in Israel"<ref>Chomsky (1999), p. 184</ref> dating from this period were countered by Israeli bombing raids in southern Lebanon, where "150 or more towns and villages...have been repeatedly savaged by the Israeli armed forces since 1968," of which the village of [[Khiyam]] is probably the best-known example.<ref>Chomsky (1999), p. 191, quoting ''Guardian'' correspondent Irene Beeson</ref> Palestinian attacks claimed 106 lives in northern Israel from 1967, according to official [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] statistics, while the Lebanese army had recorded "1.4 Israeli violations of Lebanese territory per day from 1968–74"<ref>Chomsky (1999), p. 74, citing ''Ha'aretz'', June 22, 1982, and p. 191, citing ''The New York Times'', October 2, 1977.</ref> Where Lebanon had no conflict with Israel during the period 1949–1968, after 1968 Lebanon's southern border began to experience an escalating cycle of attack and retaliation, leading to the chaos of the civil war, foreign invasions and international intervention. The consequences of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon continue to this day.

In 1974, the [[Amal Movement]], a Shi’ite political party and former militia was founded by [[Musa al-Sadr]] and [[Hussein el-Husseini]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=William W. |title=Lebanon: A History, 600-2011 |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518111-1 |edition=Oxford University Press |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York, N.Y |pages=232, 247}}</ref> Its goals were geared towards improving the social and political conditions of Lebanon's poor population. Although its primary focus was on the Shi'ite community, the movement operated as a secular entity and enjoyed the support of other communities.<ref name=":102">{{Cite book |last1=Najem |first1=Tom |title=Historical Dictionary of Lebanon |last2=Amore |first2=Roy C. |last3=Abu Khalil |first3=As'ad |date=2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-2043-9 |edition=2nd |series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East |location=Lanham Boulder New York London |pages=25}}</ref>

===The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990===
{{Main|Lebanese Civil War}}
[[File:Civil war Lebanon map 1976a.gif|thumb|200px|Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1976:<br />Dark Green – controlled by Syria;<br />Purple – controlled by [[Maronites|Maronite]] groups;<br />Light Green – controlled by [[Palestinians in Lebanon|Palestinian militias]]]]
The [[Lebanese Civil War]] had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises of Lebanon's post-Ottoman period and was exacerbated by the nation's changing demographic trends, inter-religious strife, and proximity to Syria, the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], and [[Israel]]. By 1975, Lebanon was a religiously and ethnically diverse country with most dominant groups of [[Maronite Christianity in Lebanon|Maronite Christians]], [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Eastern Orthodox Christians]], [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni Muslims]] and [[Shia Islam in Lebanon|Shia Muslims]]; with significant minorities of Druze, [[Kurds in Lebanon|Kurds]], [[Armenians in Lebanon|Armenians]], and [[Palestinians in Lebanon|Palestinian]] refugees and their descendants.

Events and political movements that contributed to Lebanon's violent implosion include, among others, the emergence of [[Arab nationalism]], [[Arab socialism]] in the context of the [[Cold War]], the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], [[Ba'athism]], the [[Iranian Revolution]], [[Palestinian militants]], [[Black September in Jordan]], [[Islamic fundamentalism]], and the [[Iran–Iraq War]].

In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 16-year war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently.<ref>[[Daniel Byman|Byman, Daniel]], and [[Kenneth Michael Pollack]]. ''Things Fall Apart: Containing the Spillover from an Iraqi Civil War''. p. 139</ref> Thousands of people lost limbs during many stages of planting of land-mines.

The War can be divided broadly into several periods: The initial outbreak in the mid–1970s, the Syrian and then Israeli intervention of the late 1970s, escalation of the PLO-Israeli conflict in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of multinational involvement, and finally resolution which took the form of Syrian occupation.

Constitutionally guaranteed Christian control of the government had come under increasing fire from Muslims and leftists, leading them to join forces as the National Movement in 1969, which called for the taking of a new census and the subsequent drafting of a new governmental structure that would reflect the census results. Political tension became military conflict, with full-scale civil war in April 1975. The leadership called for Syrian intervention in 1976, leading to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, and an Arab summit in 1976 was called to stop the crisis.

In the south, military exchanges between Israel and the [[PLO]] led Israel to support [[Saad Haddad]]'s [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA) in an effort to establish a security belt along Israel's northern border, an effort which intensified in 1977 with the election of new Israeli prime minister [[Menachem Begin]]. In March 1978 Israel invaded Lebanon in response to Fatah attacks in Israel. During Fatah attack also known as [[Coastal Road massacre|Coastal Road Massacre]], Palestinian terrorists hijacked a bus on the Coastal Highway of Israel and murdered its occupants; 38 Israeli civilians, including 13 children. Eventually, Israel took control of most of the area south of the [[Litani River]]. It resulted in the evacuation of at least 100,000 Lebanese,<ref>Smith (2006), p. 356</ref> as well as approximately 2,000 deaths.<ref>''Newsweek'', March 27, 1978; ''Time'', April 3, 1978; cited in Chomsky, ''Towards a New Cold War'', p. 485 (n115)</ref>
[[File:Civil war Lebanon map 1983a.gif|thumb|200px|Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1983: Green – controlled by Syria, purple – controlled by Christian groups, yellow – controlled by Israel, blue – controlled by the United Nations]]
The [[UN Security Council]] passed Resolution 425 calling for an immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the [[UN Interim Force in Lebanon]] (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving an SLA-controlled border strip as a protective buffer against PLO cross-border attacks.

In addition to the fighting between religious groups, there was rivalry between Maronite groups. In June 1978 one of [[Suleiman Franjieh]]'s sons, [[Tony Franjieh|Tony]], was killed along with his wife and infant daughter in a nighttime attack on their town, reportedly by [[Bashir Gemayel]], [[Samir Geagea]], and their Phalangist forces.<ref>Dalrymple, op. cit.</ref>

Concurrently, tension between Syria and [[Kataeb Party|Phalange]] increased Israeli support for the Maronite group and led to direct Israeli-Syrian exchanges in April 1981, leading to American diplomatic intervention. [[Philip Habib]] was dispatched to the region to head off further escalation, which he successfully did via an agreement concluded in May.

Intra-Palestinian fighting and PLO-Israeli conflict continued, and July 24, 1981, Habib brokered a cease-fire agreement with the PLO and Israel: the two sides agreed to cease hostilities in Lebanon proper and along the Israeli border with Lebanon.

After continued PLO-Israeli exchanges, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6, 1982, using the codename [[1982 Lebanon War|Operation Peace for Galilee]]. By June 15 of the same year, Israeli units were entrenched in the outskirts of Beirut and [[Yassir Arafat]] attempted through negotiations to evacuate the PLO. It is estimated<ref name=Race>{{cite journal|title=The 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon: the casualties|journal=Race & Class|year=1983|volume=24|issue=4|pages=340–3|doi=10.1177/030639688302400404|s2cid=220910633}}</ref> that during the entire campaign, including the Israeli siege on Beirut from June to August,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khayyat |first=Munira |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2zp50qx?turn_away=true |title=A Landscape of War: Ecologies of Resistance and Survival in South Lebanon |date=2022 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-38998-4 |edition=1}}</ref> approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians. These figures do not include the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]], in which between 700-3500 Palestinians were killed.<ref name="Race" /> A [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|multinational force]] composed of U.S. Marines and French and Italian units arrived to ensure the departure of the PLO and protect civilians. Nearly 15,000 Palestinian militants were evacuated by September 1.
[[File:Green Line, Beirut 1982.jpg|thumb|The [[Green Line (Lebanon)|Green Line]] that separated West and East Beirut, 1982]]
Although [[Bashir Gemayel]] did not cooperate with the Israelis publicly, his long history of tactical collaboration with Israel counted against him in the eyes of many Lebanese, especially Muslims. Although the only announced candidate for the presidency of the republic, the National Assembly elected him by the second-narrowest margin in Lebanese history (57 votes out of 92) on August 23, 1982; most Muslim members of the Assembly boycotted the vote. Nine days before he was due to take office, Gemayel was assassinated along with twenty-five others in an explosion at the Kataeb party headquarters in Beirut's Christian neighborhood of Achrafieh on September 14, 1982.[[Image:Bachir With Philipe Habib.jpg|thumb|left|Bachir Gemayel with Philipe Habib]]

Phalangists entered Palestinian camps on September 16 at 6:00 <small>PM</small> and remained until the morning of September 19, massacring 700-3500 Palestinians,<ref name="Race" /> "none apparently members of any PLO unit".<ref>Smith (2006), p. 380-1</ref> This attack, known as the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]], was enabled by an Israeli advance in West Beirut which was in breach of a ceasefire agreement.<ref name="Anziska">{{cite news |last1=Anziska |first1=Seth |title=A Preventable Massacre |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/17/opinion/a-preventable-massacre.html |access-date=July 21, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815021424/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/17/opinion/a-preventable-massacre.html?_r=3&pagewanted=2&partner=rss&emc=rss&pagewanted=all |archive-date=2014-08-15}}</ref> It is believed that the Phalangists considered it retaliation for Gemayel's assassination and for the [[Damour massacre]] which PLO fighters had committed earlier in a Christian town.<ref>Friedman, Thomas. (1998)'' From Beirut To Jerusalem. 2nd Edition.'' London: HarperCollins, p. 161</ref>

Bachir Gemayel was succeeded as president by his older brother Amine Gemayel, who served from 1982 to 1988. Rather different in temperament, Amine Gemayel was widely regarded as lacking the charisma and decisiveness of his brother, and many of the latter's followers were dissatisfied.

[[Amine Gemayel]] focused on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. A May 17, 1983, agreement among Lebanon, Israel, and the United States arranged an Israeli withdrawal conditional on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress.

In 1983 the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] withdrew southward and left the Chouf, and would remain only in the "security zone" until the year 2000. That led to the [[Mountain War]] between the Druze [[Progressive Socialist Party]] and the Maronite [[Lebanese Forces]]. The PSP won the decisive battle that occurred in the [[Chouf District|Chouf]] and [[Aley District]] and inflected heavy losses to the LF. The result was the expulsion of the Christians from the Southern Mount Lebanon.

[[Image:Beirutbarr.jpg|thumb|Explosion at the Marine barracks seen from afar]]
Intense attacks against U.S. and Western interests, including [[April 1983 United States Embassy bombing|two truck bombings of the US Embassy]] in 1983 and 1984 and the landmark [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|attacks on the U.S. Marine and French parachute regiment barracks]] on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal.

The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in the [[February 6 Intifada|6 February 1984 Intifada]] in Beirut, led by the PSP and Amal, the two main allies, was a major blow to the government. On March 5, as a result of the Intifada and the Mountain War, the Lebanese Government canceled the 17 May 1983 agreement. The US Marines departed a few weeks later.

Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the "[[War of the Camps]]". The [[Shia Islam in Lebanon|Shi'a Muslim]] [[Amal Movement|Amal]] militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds.

Combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists and Druze fighters allied against Amal. After winning the battle, the PSP controlled West Beirut. The Syrians then entered Beirut. This combat was fueled by the Syrians in order to take control of Beirut by taking as a pretext of stopping the fights between the brothers, the PSP and Amal. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and [[Hezbollah]].

Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister [[Rashid Karami]], head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, [[Military of Lebanon|Lebanese Armed Forces]] Commanding General [[Michel Aoun]], as acting prime minister, as was his right under the Lebanese constitution of 1943. This action was highly controversial.

Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to [[Selim Hoss|Selim al-Hoss]], a [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]] who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no president.

In February 1989, General Aoun launched the "War of liberation", a war against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon. His campaign was partially supported by a few foreign nations but the method and approach was disputed within the Christian community. This led to the Lebanese forces to abstain from the Syrian attack against Aoun. In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups (including Hariri, Joumblatt, Berri, Geagea and Lahoud) attacked the Presidential Palace at B'abda and forced Aoun to take refuge in the French embassy in Beirut and later go into exile in [[Paris]]. October 13, 1990, is regarded as the date the civil war ended, and Syria is widely recognized as playing a critical role in its end.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/819200.stm |title=Lebanon profile - Timeline |work=BBC News |date=2012-05-21 |access-date=2012-08-13 |archive-date=2008-12-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218085114/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/819200.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Taif Agreement]] of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war, and was ratified on November 4. President [[Rene Mouawad]] was elected the following day, but was assassinated in a [[car bomb]]ing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies. He was succeeded by [[Elias Hrawi]], who remained in office until 1998.

In August 1990, the parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned most political crimes prior to its enactment, excepting crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council.

In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the [[Military of Lebanon|Lebanese Armed Forces]] began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution.

Some violence still occurred. In late December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry {{Convert|100|kg||abbr=on}} of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of [[Basta, Lebanon|Basta]]. At least thirty people were killed, and 120 wounded, including former prime minister [[Shafik Wazzan]], who was riding in a bulletproof car. It was the deadliest car bombing in Lebanon since June 18, 1985, when an explosion in the northern Lebanese port of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] killed sixty people and wounded 110.

The last of the Westerners kidnapped by Hezbollah during the mid–1980s were released in May 1992.