Editing History of Italy (section)

==Unification (1814–1861)==
{{Main|Italian unification}}
[[File:Italian-unification.gif|thumb|left|Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871]]

The ''[[Risorgimento]]'' was the political and social process that unified different states of the [[Italian Peninsula]]. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of [[Napoleon]]ic rule and the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, and approximately ended with the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871, though the last [[irredentism|"città irredente"]] did not join until the Italian victory in [[World War I]].

In 1820, Spaniards successfully [[Ferdinand VII of Spain#Revolt|revolted]] over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. A regiment in the army of the [[Two Sicilies|Kingdom of Two Sicilies]], commanded by [[Guglielmo Pepe]], a ''Carbonaro'' (member of the secret republican organization),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carbonaro – definition of Carbonaro by The Free Dictionary |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Carbonaro |access-date=28 January 2015 |publisher=The free dictionary.com}}</ref> mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand I]], agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the [[Holy Alliance]]. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting revolutionaries, many of whom were forced into exile.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Austria Two Sicilies Revolt 1820–1821 |url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/all/austrohun/ftwosicilies1820.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010211055035/http://onwar.com/aced/nation/all/austrohun/ftwosicilies1820.htm |archive-date=11 February 2001 |access-date=30 September 2014 |publisher=Onwar.com}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Giuseppe Mazzini.jpg
| width1            = 173
| image2            = Giuseppe Garibaldi 1861.jpg
| width2            = 138
| footer            = [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] (left), highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] (right), celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{cite web |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ |page=PA133 |keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time |text= |plainurl=yes}}|title=Scholar and Patriot|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|archive-date=26 February 2014|access-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> who fought in many military campaigns that led to [[Italian unification]]
}}

The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in [[Piedmont]] was [[Santorre di Santarosa]], who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the [[House of Savoy]]. The Piedmont revolt started in [[Alessandria]]. The king's regent, prince [[Charles Albert of Sardinia|Charles Albert]], acting while the king [[Charles Felix of Sardinia|Charles Felix]] was away, approved a new [[constitution]] to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the [[Holy Alliance]]. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to [[Paris]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Broers |first=Michael |date=1990 |title=Revolution as Vendetta: Patriotism in Piedmont, 1794–1821 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=573–597|doi=10.1017/S0018246X00013534 }}</ref>
Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; perhaps the most famous of proto-nationalist works was [[Alessandro Manzoni]]'s [[The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)|''I Promessi Sposi'' (The Betrothed)]], published in 1827. The 1840 version of ''I Promessi Sposi'' used a standardized version of the [[Languages of Italy|Tuscan dialect]], a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.

At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against the [[Austrian Empire]] and the [[Habsburg]]s, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were the single most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment. Austrian Chancellor Franz Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the word ''Italy'' was nothing more than "a geographic expression."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Astarita |first=Tommaso |title=Between Salt Water And Holy Water: A History of Southern Italy |date=2000 |page=264}}</ref> Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from the [[Holy See]], particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with the [[Papal States]], which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region. [[Pius IX]] feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hales |first=E. E. Y. |title=Pio Nono: A Study in European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century |date=1954 |publisher=P.J. Kenedy}}</ref>

Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. [[Vincenzo Gioberti]] suggested a confederation of Italian states under the rulership of the Pope. His book, ''Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians'', was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually, it was a [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|king]] and his [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour|chief minister]] who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy.

[[File:Image-Inno di Mameli 2.jpg|thumb|[[Holograph]]ic copy of 1847 of ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946]]
One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the [[Carbonari]] (charcoal burners), a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the [[French Revolution]], its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna, the ''Carbonari'' movement spread into the Papal States, the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]], the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], the [[Duchy of Modena]] and the [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]]. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. The ''Carbonari'' condemned [[Napoleon III]] to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization.
In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946, took place.{{Sfnp|Maiorino|Marchetti Tricamo|Zagami|2002|page=18}}
Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement were [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]. The more conservative constitutional monarchic figures included the [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour|Count of Cavour]] and [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]], who would later become the first [[Kings of Italy|king of a united Italy]]. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could – and therefore should – be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went to [[Marseille]], where he organized a new political society called [[Young Italy (historical)|''La Giovine Italia'' (Young Italy)]] seeking the unification of Italy. Garibaldi participated in an uprising in [[Piedmont]] in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He returned to Italy in 1848. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of concerted efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the [[House of Savoy]] to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire [[Italian Peninsula]].

[[File:Battle of Calatafimi.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Calatafimi]] between Garibaldi's [[Redshirts (Italy)|Redshirts]] and the troops of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]]]]
[[File:Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg|thumb|right|Painting depicting the [[proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy]] in 1861]]

Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the [[Statuto Albertino]] was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848, under liberal pressure. Under the same pressure, the [[First Italian War of Independence]] was declared on Austria. After initial success, the war took a turn for the worse and the Kingdom of Sardinia lost.

After the [[Revolutions of 1848]], the apparent leader of the Italian unification movement was Garibaldi, popular amongst southern Italians.{{Sfnp|Mack Smith|1997|page=15}} Garibaldi led the Italian republican drive for unification in southern Italy, but the northern Italian monarchy of the [[House of Savoy]] in the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]] whose government was led by [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]], also had the ambition of establishing a united Italian state. Although the kingdom had no physical connection to Rome (deemed the natural capital of Italy), the kingdom had successfully challenged [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in the [[Second Italian War of Independence]], liberating [[Lombardy–Venetia]] from Austrian rule. On the basis of the [[Plombières Agreement]], the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded [[Savoy]] and [[Nice]] to France, an event that caused the [[Niçard exodus]], that was the emigration of a quarter of the [[Niçard Italians]] to Italy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 August 2017 |title="Un nizzardo su quattro prese la via dell'esilio" in seguito all'unità d'Italia, dice lo scrittore Casalino Pierluigi |url=https://www.montecarlonews.it/2017/08/28/notizie/argomenti/altre-notizie-1/articolo/un-nizzardo-su-quattro-prese-la-via-dellesilio-in-seguito-allunita-ditalia-dice-lo-scrittore.html |access-date=14 May 2021 |language=it}}</ref> The kingdom also had established important alliances which helped it improve the possibility of Italian unification, such as [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France in the [[Crimean War]].

Garibaldi was elected in 1871 in Nice at the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the Italian unitary state, but he was prevented from speaking.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Times article dated February 13, 1871 |url=http://storage.canalblog.com/76/72/572678/57843167.png |access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "[[Niçard Vespers]]",<ref>{{Cite web |title=I Vespri Nizzardi del 1871: conferenza storica e annullo speciale |url=http://www.philweb.it/i_vespri_nizzardi_del_1871_conferenza_storica_e_annullo_speciale-st1940.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909073731/http://www.philweb.it/i_vespri_nizzardi_del_1871_conferenza_storica_e_annullo_speciale-st1940.html |archive-date=9 September 2012 |access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stuart |first=J. Woolf |title=Il risorgimento italiano |date=1981 |publisher=Einaudi |location=Turin |page=44 |lang=it}}</ref> Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=André |first=Giuseppe |title=Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni |date=1875 |publisher=Editore Gilletta |location=Nice |pages=334–335 |lang=it}}</ref>

===Southern question and Italian diaspora===
{{See also|Southern question|Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861|Italian diaspora}}
[[File:Carmine Crocco1.jpg|thumb|[[Carmine Crocco]]]]

The transition was not smooth for the south (the "[[Mezzogiorno]]"). The path to unification and modernization created a divide between Northern and Southern Italy called [[Southern question]]. The entire region south of Naples was afflicted with numerous deep economic and social liabilities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moe |first=Nelson |title=The View from Vesuvius: Italian Culture and the Southern Question |date=2002}}</ref> However, many of the South's political problems and its reputation of being "passive" or lazy (politically speaking) was due to the new government that alienated the South. On the other hand, transportation was difficult, soil fertility was low with extensive erosion, deforestation was severe, many businesses could stay open only because of high protective tariffs, large estates were often poorly managed, most peasants had only very small plots, and there was chronic unemployment and high crime rates.<ref name="Roland Sarti 2004 pp 567">{{Cite book |last=Sarti |first=Roland |title=Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present |date=2004 |pages=567–568}}</ref>

Cavour decided the basic problem was poor government, and believed that could be remedied by strict application of the Piedmontese legal system. The main result was an upsurge in [[brigandage in the Two Sicilies|brigandage]], which turned into a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years. The insurrection reached its peak mainly in [[Basilicata]] and northern [[Apulia]], headed by the brigands [[Carmine Crocco]] and Michele Caruso.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Massari |first1=Giuseppe |title=Il brigantaggio nelle province napoletane |last2=Castagnola |first2=Stefano |date=1863 |publisher=Fratelli Ferrario |page=17, 20 |lang=it}}</ref> With the end of the southern riots, there was an outflow of millions of peasants in the [[Italian diaspora]], especially to the United States and South America. Others relocated to the northern industrial cities such as Genoa, Milan and Turin, and sent money home.<ref name="Roland Sarti 2004 pp 567" />

The first Italian diaspora began around 1880 and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of [[Kingdom of Italy under Fascism (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]].<ref name="Pozzetta, George E. 1992">{{Cite book |first1=George E. |last1=Pozzetta |title=The Italian Diaspora: Migration across the Globe |last2=Ramirez |first2=Bruno |last3=Harney |first3=Robert F. |date=1992 |publisher=Multicultural History Society of Ontario |location=Toronto}}</ref> Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as ''[[mezzadria]]'' [[sharecropping]] flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in [[Southern Italy]], conditions were harsh.<ref name="Pozzetta, George E. 1992" /> Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a [[rural society]] with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and the [[Northeastern Italy|Northeast]], did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil.<ref name="MacDonald">{{Cite journal |last=McDonald |first=J. S. |date=October 1958 |title=Some Socio-Economic Emigration Differentials in Rural Italy, 1902-1913 |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=55–72 |doi=10.1086/449779 |issn=0013-0079 |s2cid=153889304}}</ref>

Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after [[Unification of Italy|Unification]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sori |first=Ercole |title=L'emigrazione italiana dall' Unità alla Seconda Guerra Mondiale |at=chapter 1 |lang=It}}</ref> That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the [[Americas]].<ref name="Italy's Many Diasporas">{{Cite book |last=Gabaccia |first=Donna |title=Italy's Many Diasporas |date=200 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |pages=58–80}}</ref> The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread" ({{Langx|it|pane e lavoro}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pozzetta |first=George E. |title=Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class |date=1980 |publisher=Multicultural History Society of Ontorio |location=Toronto}}</ref>

Unification broke down the feudal land system, which had survived in the south since the Middle Ages, especially where land had been the inalienable property of aristocrats, religious bodies or the king. The breakdown of [[feudalism]], however, and redistribution of land did not necessarily lead to small farmers in the south winding up owning arable land. Many remained landless, and plots grew smaller and smaller and so less and less productive, as land was subdivided amongst heirs.<ref name="MacDonald" /> Between 1860 and World War I, at least 9 million Italians left permanently of a total of 16 million who emigrated, most travelling to North or South America.<ref name="Hatton">{{Cite journal |last1=Hatton |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Williamson |first2=Jeffrey G. |date=September 1994 |title=What Drove the Mass Migrations from Europe in the Late Nineteenth Century? |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/h0043.pdf |journal=Population and Development Review |publisher=Population Council |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=533–559 |doi=10.2307/2137600 |issn=0098-7921 |jstor=2137600}}</ref><ref name="Italy's Many Diasporas" />