Editing History of Egypt (section)

== British Protectorate (1882–1952) ==
{{Main|History of Egypt under the British|History of modern Egypt}}
[[File:Cairo-Demonstrations1919.jpg|thumb|upright|Nationalists demonstrating in [[Cairo]], 1919]]

British indirect rule lasted from 1882, when the British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at [[Battle of Tel el-Kebir|Tel el-Kebir]] in September and took control of the country, to the [[1952 Egyptian revolution]] which made Egypt a republic and when British advisers were expelled.

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim]] (in September 1848), then by a grandson [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]] (in November 1848), then by [[Said of Egypt|Said]] (in 1854), and [[Isma'il Pasha|Isma'il]] (in 1863).
<!--In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the Government. Members of the Assembly were elected from across Egypt and came to have an important influence on Government decisions.<ref> Jankowski, James. ''Egypt: A Short History.'' Oxford: One world Publications, 2000. p. 83</ref> That's hogwash, the assembly had almost no power and rarely met-->
Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers, but they spent beyond their means. The [[Suez Canal]], built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The cost of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875, Ismail sold Egypt's 44% share in the canal to the British Government.
Ismail also tried to conquer the [[Ethiopian Empire]] and was defeated twice at Gundet in 1875 and again at the [[Battle of Gura]] in 1876.

Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty#Dual control|controllers]] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p 2.</ref>

Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with [[Ahmad Urabi]] a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the [[battle of Tel el-Kebir]].<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981'' (London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin), p. 11</ref> They reinstalled Ismail's son [[Tewfik Pasha|Tewfik]] as the figurehead of a ''de facto'' British protectorate.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt'' (Scarecrow, 1984), p. 17</ref><ref>R.C. Mowat, "From Liberalism to Imperialism: The Case of Egypt 1875-1887." ''Historical Journal'' 16#1 (1973): 109-24. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637918 online].</ref>
In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the Ottoman Empire no longer had a role. The title for the head of state, which in 1867 had changed from ''pasha'' to ''[[Khedivate of Egypt|khedive]]'', was changed again to ''[[Sultanate of Egypt|sultan]]''. [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas II]] was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]], as sultan.<ref>James Jankowski, ''Egypt, A Short History'', p. 111</ref>

In 1906, the [[Dinshaway Incident]] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, [[Saad Zaghlul]] and the [[Wafd Party]] led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to [[Malta]] on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its [[Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]. The revolt led the [[United Kingdom coalition government (1916–1922)|UK government]] to issue a [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence]] on 22 February 1922.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 112</ref>

The [[Kingdom of Egypt|new government]] drafted and implemented a [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]] in 1923 based on a [[parliamentary system]]. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] in 1924. In 1936, the [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]] was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military ''coup d'état'' known as the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]]. The [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]] forced King [[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]] to abdicate in support of his son [[Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad]].

British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.<ref name=factbook-history>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|work=CIA- The World Factbook|access-date=2 February 2011|quote= Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952.}}</ref>