Editing Gender (section)

== Gender and society ==

=== Languages ===
* [[Grammatical gender]] is a property of some languages in which every [[noun]] is assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. For example, the word for "girl" is ''[[:es:muchacha|muchacha]]'' (grammatically feminine) in [[Spanish language|Spanish]],<ref name="post" /> ''[[:de:Mädchen|Mädchen]]'' (grammatically neuter) or the older ''[[:de:Maid|Maid]]'' (grammatically feminine)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maid|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Maid|access-date=2023-12-14|website=wiktionary.org}}</ref> in [[German language|German]], and ''[[:ga:cailín|cailín]]'' (grammatically masculine) in [[Irish language|Irish]].<ref name="post" />
* The term "[[grammatical gender]]" is often applied to more complex [[noun class]] systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as well as some other non-gender features like animate, edible, manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter is found in the [[Dyirbal language]]. Other gender systems exist with no distinction between masculine and feminine; examples include a distinction between animate and inanimate things, which is common to, amongst others, [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]],<ref>Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 114.</ref> [[Basque language|Basque]] and [[Hittite language|Hittite]]; and systems distinguishing between people (whether human or divine) and everything else, which are found in the [[Dravidian languages]] and [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]].
* A sample of the [[World Atlas of Language Structures]] by [[Greville G Corbett]] found that fewer than half of the 258 languages sampled have any system of [[grammatical gender]].<ref name="The expression of gender">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R2jnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|title=The expression of gender|date=2014|editor-first1=Greville G. |editor-last1=Corbett |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-030733-7|location=Berlin|pages=124|oclc=913049820|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115731/https://www.worldcat.org/title/expression-of-gender/oclc/913049820|url-status=live}}</ref> Of the remaining languages that feature grammatical gender, over half have more than the minimum requirement of two genders.<ref name="The expression of gender"/> Grammatical gender may be based on [[sex|biological sex]] (which is the most common basis for grammatical gender), [[animacy]], or other features, and may be based on a combination of these classes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R2jnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA110|title=The expression of gender|date=2014|editor-first1=Greville G. |editor-last1=Corbett |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-030733-7|location=Berlin|pages=110|oclc=913049820|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115731/https://www.worldcat.org/title/expression-of-gender/oclc/913049820|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the four genders of the [[Dyirbal language]] consists mainly of fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R2jnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA115|title=The expression of gender|date=2014|editor-first1=Greville G. |editor-last1=Corbett |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-030733-7|location=Berlin|pages=115|oclc=913049820|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115730/https://www.worldcat.org/title/expression-of-gender/oclc/913049820|url-status=live}}</ref> Languages of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] language family can have as many as twenty genders, including plants, places, and shapes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/913049820|title=The expression of gender|date=2014|editor-first1=Greville G. |editor-last1=Corbett |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-030733-7|location=Berlin|oclc=913049820}}</ref>
* Many languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men and women. Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more [[Gender-neutral language in English|gender-neutral vocabulary]] in English and other languages.<ref name="Lindqvist2018">{{cite journal |last1=Lindqvist |first1=Anna |last2=Renström |first2=Emma Aurora |last3=Sendén |first3=Marie Gustafsson |date=18 October 2019 |s2cid-access=free |title=Reducing a Male Bias in Language? Establishing the Efficiency of Three Different Gender-Fair Language Strategies |journal=[[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] |volume=81 |issue=1–2 |pages=109–117 |doi=10.1007/s11199-018-0974-9|s2cid=255011887 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to differing degrees. See, for instance, [[Gender differences in Japanese]]. The oldest documented language, [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], records a distinctive sub-language, [[Emesal]], only used by female speakers.<ref name="Guichard2023">{{Cite news |title=Emesal: The Language of Women and Lamenters in Cuneiform Literature in the Early Second Millennium BC in Mesopotamia |url=https://ilaraen.hypotheses.org/4611 |website=hypotheses.org |last=Guichard |first=Michaël |date=31 May 2023 |access-date=4 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Conversely, many [[Indigenous Australian languages]] have distinctive registers with a limited [[lexicon]] used by men in the presence of their mothers-in-law (see [[Avoidance speech]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |year=1980 |chapter=Speech and song styles: Avoidance styles |title=The languages of Australia |volume=Section 3.3 |pages=58–59 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> As well, quite a few [[sign language]]s have a gendered distinction due to boarding schools segregated by gender, such as [[Irish Sign Language]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Irish Sign Language|url=https://www.irishdeafsociety.ie/irish-sign-language/|access-date=2020-07-28|website=www.irishdeafsociety.ie}}</ref>
* Several languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="post">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/15/guide-how-gender-neutral-language-is-developing-around-world/ |title=A Guide to How Gender-Neutral Language is Developing Around the World |last=Berger |first=Miriam |date=December 15, 2019 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108223442/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/15/guide-how-gender-neutral-language-is-developing-around-world/ |archive-date=January 8, 2020}}</ref> or [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are gender-neutral. In Persian the same word is used in reference to men and women. Verbs, adjectives and nouns are not gendered. (See [[Gender-neutrality in genderless languages]]).
* Several languages employ different ways to refer to people where there are three or more genders, such as [[Navajo language|Navajo]]<ref name="Nimmo2019">{{Cite news |title=Navajo Nation's LGBTQ Pride Event Celebrates A Return To The Culture's History |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2019/07/11/738099923/navajo-nations-lgbtq-pride-event-celebrates-a-return-to-the-culture-s-history |publisher=[[NPR]] |last=Nimmo |first=Cayla |date=14 July 2023 |access-date=3 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Legal status ===
A person's gender can have legal significance. In some countries and jurisdictions there are [[same-sex marriage]] laws.<ref name=":0" />

==== Transgender people ====
{{Main|Legal status of transgender people}}

The legal status of [[transgender]] people varies greatly around the world. Some countries have enacted laws protecting the rights of transgender individuals, but others have criminalized their [[gender identity]] or [[Gender expression|expression]].<ref name=":1" /> Many countries now legally recognize sex reassignments by permitting a change of legal gender on an individual's [[birth certificate]].<ref name=":2" />

==== Intersex people ====
{{main|Legal recognition of intersex people}}

For [[intersex]] people, who according to the UN [[Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights]], "do not fit typical binary notions of [[male]] or [[female]] bodies",<ref name="unfe-fact2">{{Cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2015 |title=Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex |url=https://unfe.org/system/unfe-65-Intersex_Factsheet_ENGLISH.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071043/https://unfe.org/system/unfe-65-Intersex_Factsheet_ENGLISH.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=28 March 2016 |publisher=United Nations [[Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights]]}}</ref> access to any form of identification document with a gender marker may be an issue.<ref name="Reuters2">{{Cite news |last=Migiro |first=Katy |date=December 5, 2014 |title=Kenya takes step toward recognizing intersex people in landmark ruling |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-intersex-idUSKCN0JJ1M120141205 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206112734/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/05/us-kenya-intersex-idUSKCN0JJ1M120141205 |archive-date=December 6, 2014 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |website=Reuters}}</ref> For other intersex people, there may be issues in securing the same rights as other individuals assigned male or female; other intersex people may seek non-binary gender recognition.<ref name="afp20162">{{Cite book |url=https://www.asiapacificforum.net/resources/manual-sogi-and-sex-charactersitics/ |title=Promoting and Protecting Human Rights in relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Sex Characteristics |date=2016 |publisher=[[Asia Pacific Forum|Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions]] |isbn=978-0-9942513-7-4 |access-date=12 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115144950/https://www.asiapacificforum.net/resources/manual-sogi-and-sex-charactersitics/ |archive-date=15 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Non-binary and third genders ====
{{main|Legal recognition of non-binary gender}}

Some countries now legally recognize non-binary or third genders, including [[Canada]], [[Germany]],<ref name="post2">{{cite news |last=Berger |first=Miriam |date=December 15, 2019 |title=A Guide to How Gender-Neutral Language is Developing Around the World |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/15/guide-how-gender-neutral-language-is-developing-around-world/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108223442/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/12/15/guide-how-gender-neutral-language-is-developing-around-world/ |archive-date=January 8, 2020 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. In the [[United States]], [[Oregon]] was the first state to legally recognize non-binary gender in 2017,<ref name=":3" /> and was followed by [[California]] and the [[District of Columbia]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Science ===
Historically, science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schiebinger|first1=Londa|author-link1=Londa Schiebinger|title=Has Feminism Changed Science? |journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1171–5 |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-674-00544-0 |edition=2nd |pmid=17089478 |doi=10.1086/495540 |s2cid=225088475}}</ref> Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century, women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields, such as [[home science]], [[nursing]], and [[child psychology]].<ref name="Sheffield2006">{{cite book|title=Women and Science: Social Impact and Interaction|date=2006|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3737-5|location=New Brunswick, NJ|pages=129–134|last1=Sheffield|first1=Suzanne Le-May}}</ref> Women were also typically given tedious, low-paying jobs and denied opportunities for career advancement.<ref name="Sheffield2006" /> This was often justified by the stereotype that women were naturally more suited to jobs that required concentration, patience, and dexterity, rather than creativity, leadership, or intellect.<ref name="Sheffield2006" /> Although these stereotypes have been dispelled in modern times, women are still underrepresented in prestigious "[[Hard and soft science|hard science]]" fields such as [[physics]], and are less likely to hold high-ranking positions,<ref name="Eisenhart1998">{{cite journal |title=Women's Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins|journal=Science Education|volume=84|issue=6|last2=Finkel|first2=Elizabeth|date=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-19544-5|location=Chicago|pages=[https://archive.org/details/womenssciencelea0000eise/page/34 34–36]|last1=Eisenhart|first1=Margaret A.|bibcode=2000SciEd..84..793A|doi=10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6<793::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-K|url=https://archive.org/details/womenssciencelea0000eise/page/34}}</ref> a situation global initiatives such as the United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 5]] are trying to rectify.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender equality|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-5-gender-equality|access-date=2020-09-23|website=UN Women|language=en|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126102330/https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-5-gender-equality|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{See also|Women in science}}

=== Religion ===
{{further|Gender and religion}}
This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as [[Gender of God|gender of God and deities]] creation myths about human gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles especially [[ordination of women]], [[sex segregation]], [[gender equality]], marriage, abortion, [[Homosexuality and religion|homosexuality]]).

[[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|100px|[[Yin and yang|''Yin'' and ''yang'']]]]
In [[Taoism]], [[yin and yang]] are considered feminine and masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole. The male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and shining; the female principle corresponds to the moon: passive, shaded, and reflective. Thus "male toughness was balanced by female gentleness, male action and initiative by female endurance and need for completion, and male leadership by female supportiveness."<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Civilizations in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 2000-250 BCE |url=https://www.mukilteoschools.org/cms/lib/WA01819447/Centricity/Domain/575/Summer-Reading-Packet-4--p--38-51.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223235730/https://www.mukilteoschools.org/cms/lib/WA01819447/Centricity/Domain/575/Summer-Reading-Packet-4--p--38-51.pdf |archive-date=December 23, 2023 |access-date=December 23, 2023 |at=11}}</ref>

In [[Judaism]], [[God]] is traditionally described in the masculine, but in the mystical tradition of the [[Kabbalah]], the [[Shekhinah]] represents the feminine aspect of God's essence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stateofformation.org/2012/01/the-shekhinah-or-the-divine-presence-or-divine-feminine-in-judaism/ |title=The Shekhinah or The Divine Presence or Divine Feminine in Judaism |last=Tuchman |first=Lauren |author-link=Lauren Tuchman |date=January 18, 2012 |website=State of Formation |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428123738/https://stateofformation.org/2012/01/the-shekhinah-or-the-divine-presence-or-divine-feminine-in-judaism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Judaism [[Jewish principles of faith|traditionally holds]] that God is completely non-corporeal, and thus neither male nor female. Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding, traditional Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following Judaism's traditional gender roles, though many modern [[Jewish religious movements|denominations of Judaism]] strive for greater egalitarianism. Moreover, traditional Jewish culture recognizes at least [[Gender and Judaism|six genders]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gender Diversity in Jewish Tradition {{!}} Reform Judaism |url=https://reformjudaism.org/gender-diversity-jewish-tradition |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=reformjudaism.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Eight Genders in the Talmud |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-eight-genders-in-the-talmud/ |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=My Jewish Learning |language=en-US}}</ref>

In [[Christianity]], God is traditionally described in masculine terms and the Church has historically been described in feminine terms. On the other hand, Christian [[theology]] in many churches distinguishes between the masculine images used of God (Father, King, God the Son) and the reality they signify, which transcends gender, embodies all the virtues of both men and women perfectly, which may be seen through the doctrine of [[Imago Dei]]. In the [[New Testament]], Jesus at several times mentions the Holy Spirit with the masculine pronoun i.e. John 15:26 among other verses. Hence, [[God the Father|the Father]], [[God the Son|the Son]] and [[the Holy Spirit]] (i.e. [[Trinity]]) are all mentioned with the masculine pronoun; though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the Christian triune God is contested.<ref name="Tompkins2015">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32960507 |title=Why is God not female? |last=Tompkins |first=Stephan |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=2 June 2015 |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref>

In [[Hinduism]], one of the several forms of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Shiva]] is [[Ardhanarishvara]] (literally half-female god). In this composite form, the left half of the body represents [[shakti]] (energy, power) in the form of the goddess [[Parvati]] (otherwise his consort) while the right half represents Shiva. Whereas Parvati is regarded to be the cause of arousal of [[kama]] (desire), Shiva is the destroyer of the concept. Symbolically, Shiva is pervaded by the power of Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ardhanarishvara |title=Arhanarishvara: Hindu deity |website=Britannica |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815031629/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ardhanarishvara |archive-date=August 15, 2018}}</ref>

This myth projects an inherent view in ancient Hinduism, that each human carries within himself both female and male components, which are forces rather than sexes, and it is the harmony between the creative and the annihilative, the strong and the soft, the proactive and the passive, that makes a true person. Evidence of homosexuality, bisexuality, androgyny, [[multiple sex partners]], and open representation of sexual pleasures are found in artworks like the Khajuraho temples, believed to have been accepted within prevalent social frameworks.<ref name="vohra">Vohra, Ashok (8 March 2005), "The Male-Female Hologram," ''[[Times of India]]'', p. 9.</ref>

=== Poverty ===
{{Main|Feminization of poverty}}

Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty. Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family. Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land, grinding grain, carrying water and cooking.<ref name=UNPD>[https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/povertyreduction/focus_areas/focus_gender_and_poverty/ Gender and Poverty Reduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029203731/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/povertyreduction/focus_areas/focus_gender_and_poverty/ |date=29 October 2014 }}. UNPD.org. 29 October 2014</ref> Also, women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination, as men are more likely to receive higher pay, have more opportunities, and have overall more political and social capital then women.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1987|title=The Feminization of Poverty|journal=Journal of Economic Issues|volume=21|issue=1|pages=329–337|jstor=4225831|author=Peterson, Janice|doi=10.1080/00213624.1987.11504613}}</ref> Approximately 75% of world's women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs.<ref name=UNPD /> It shows that there are many women in the world's population but only a few represent world's wealth. In many countries, the financial sector largely neglects women even though they play an important role in the economy, as Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in ''D+C Development and Cooperation''.<ref>Stoiljkovic, Nena. [https://www.dandc.eu/articles/220419/index.en.shtml Smart finance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115845/https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/smart-financial-institutions-consider-female-clients-favourably |date=17 February 2022 }}. D+C Development and Cooperation</ref> In 1978 Diana M. Pearce coined the term [[feminization of poverty]] to describe the problem of women having higher rates of poverty.<ref name="ReferenceA">Christopher, Karen, et al. ''The Gender Gap in Poverty in Modern Nations: Single Motherhood, The Market, and the State''. University of California Press.</ref> Women are more vulnerable to chronic poverty because of gender inequalities in the distribution of income, property ownership, credit, and control over earned income.<ref name="ReferenceB">[[Nilufer Cagatay|Cagatay, Nilufer]]. "Trade, Gender and Poverty." pp. 4–8. United Nations.</ref> Resource allocation is typically gender-biased within households, and continue on a higher level regarding state institutions.<ref name="ReferenceB" />
[[File:Gender and poverty 2012.jpg|thumb|A bar graph comparing poverty differences based on age and gender in 2012.]]
Gender and Development (GAD) is a holistic approach to give aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of not improving the social and economic development. It is a program focused on the gender development of women to empower them and decrease the level of inequality between men and women.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2008|title=The 'Feminisation of Poverty' and the 'Feminisation' of Anti-Poverty Programmes: Room for Revision?|journal=Journal of Development Studies|volume=44|issue=2|pages=165–197|doi=10.1080/00220380701789810|last1=Chant|first1=Sylvia|s2cid=154939529}}</ref>

The largest discrimination study of the transgender community, conducted in 2013, found that the transgender community is four times more likely to live in extreme poverty (income of less than $10,000 a year) than people who are [[cisgender]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://calculators.io/national-transgender-discrimination-survey/ |title=Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey |first1=Jaime M. |last1=Grant |first2=Lisa A. |last2=Mottet |first3=Justin |last3=Tanis |first4=Jack |last4=Harrison |first5=Jody L. |last5=Herman |first6=Mara |last6=Keisling |publisher=National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force |date=2011 |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120220938/https://calculators.io/national-transgender-discrimination-survey/ |archive-date=20 November 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.glaad.org/transgender/transfaq |website=GLAAD |title=Transgender FAQ|date=8 November 2013|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508223747/https://www.glaad.org/transgender/transfaq|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== General strain theory ===
According to [[general strain theory]], studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts.<ref name="Agnew, Robert 2012">{{Cite journal|year=2012|title=Reflection on "A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency" |s2cid-access=free |journal=Social Forces|volume=91|pages=33–38|doi=10.1093/sf/sos117|last1=Agnew|first1=R.|s2cid=145274165|doi-access=free}}</ref> These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non-violent neighborhoods.<ref name="Agnew, Robert 2012" /> By noticing the independent variables (neighborhood violence) and the dependent variable (individual violence), it is possible to analyze gender roles.<ref name="Grothoff">{{Cite journal|last2=Kempf-Leonard|first2=K.|last3=Mullins|first3=C.|year=2014|title=Gender and Juvenile Drug Abuse: A General Strain Theory Perspective|journal=Women & Criminal Justice|volume=24|pages=22–43|doi=10.1080/08974454.2013.842519|last1=Grothoff|first1=G. E.|s2cid=144473355}}</ref> The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus, which would create a negative effect (strain) within individual, which is either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite journal|last2=Blurton|first2=D.|last3=McCluskey|first3=J.D.|year=2007|title=General Strain Theory and Delinquency: Focusing on the Influences of Key Strain Characteristics on Delinquency|journal=Crime & Delinquency|volume=54|issue=4|pages=582–613|doi=10.1177/0011128707301627|last1=Moon|first1=B.|s2cid=145118032}}</ref> Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically.<ref name="ReferenceC" />

Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger.<ref name="Agnew, Robert 2012" /> Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead.<ref name="Agnew, Robert 2012" /> Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety and depression.<ref name="Grothoff" /> Women view anger as a sign that they've somehow lost control, and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and/or damage relationships. On the other end of the spectrum, men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity.<ref name="Grothoff" /> According to the general strain theory, men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others.<ref name="ReferenceC" />

=== Economic development ===

Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to [[international development]] issues.<ref>Adema, W., Ali, N., Frey, V., Kim, H., Lunati, M., Piacentini, M. and Queisser, M. (2014). Enhancing Women's Economic Empowerment Through Entrepreneurship and Business leadership in OECD Countries. OECD.</ref> This often means a focus on gender-equality, ensuring [[participation (decision making)|participation]], but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community.<ref>[https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/employment-and-social-policy/ILO-IMF-OECD-WBG-Achieving-stronger-growth-by-promoting-a-more-gender-balanced-economy-G20.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902151057/https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/employment-and-social-policy/ILO-IMF-OECD-WBG-Achieving-stronger-growth-by-promoting-a-more-gender-balanced-economy-G20.pdf|date=2 September 2021}} OECD, ILO, IMF and WBG, (2014). Achieving stronger growth by promoting a more genderbalanced economy. Report prepared for the G20 Labour and Employment Ministerial Meeting. Melbourne, Australia: G20 Labour and Employment Ministerial Meeting.</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{Main|Climate change and gender}}
Gender is a topic of increasing concern within [[climate change]] policy and science.<ref name="Olsson">Olsson, Lennart'' et al.'' (2014) [https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap13_FINAL.pdf "Livelihoods and Poverty"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028162950/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap13_FINAL.pdf |date=28 October 2014 }}, pp. 793–832 in ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.'' Ed. C.B. Field et al. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender-differentiated [[effects of climate change|consequences of climate change]], as well as unequal [[adaptation to global warming|adaptation]] capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and [[intersectionality|intersecting]] power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, [[vulnerability]] is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization.<ref name="Birkmann">Birkmann, Joern et al. (2014)[https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter19.pdf "Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923002713/https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter19.pdf |date=23 September 2014 }}, pp. 1039–1099 in ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.'' Ed. C.B. Field et al. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>
Roehr<ref name="Roehr">Roehr, Ulrike (2007). [https://www.unep.org/roa/Amcen/Projects_Programme/climate_change/PreCop15/Proceedings/Gender-and-climate-change/Roehr_Gender_climate.pdf "Gender, Climate Change and Adaptation. Introduction to the Gender Dimensions"] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20150517003436/https://unep.org/roa/amcen/Projects_Programme/climate_change/PreCop15/Proceedings/Gender-and-climate-change/Roehr_Gender_climate.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://unep.org/roa/amcen/Projects_Programme/climate_change/PreCop15/Proceedings/Gender-and-climate-change/Roehr_Gender_climate.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=17 May 2015 }}. unep.org</ref> notes that, while the [[United Nations]] officially committed to [[gender mainstreaming]], in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies. This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men.<ref name="MacGregor" /><ref name="Tuana">{{Cite book | doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-5518-5_2| chapter = Gendering Climate Knowledge for Justice: Catalyzing a New Research Agenda| title = Research, Action and Policy: Addressing the Gendered Impacts of Climate Change| pages = 17–31| year = 2013| last1 = Tuana | first1 = N. | isbn = 978-94-007-5517-8}}</ref><ref name="Boyd">Boyd, Emily (2009). [https://archive.today/20141027174654/https://practicalaction.metapress.com/content/j61l8q/?genre=issue&id=doi:10.3362/9781780440088 "The Noel Kempff Project in Bolivia: Gender, Power, and Decision-Making in Climate Mitigation"], pp. 101–110 in ''Climate Change and Gender Justice''. Geraldine Terry and Caroline Sweetman (eds.). Warwickshire: Practical Action Publishing, Oxfam GB.</ref>
Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in 'masculine' principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions.<ref name="Tuana" /> This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana<ref name="Tuana" /> terms 'epistemic injustice'.
Similarly, MacGregor<ref name="MacGregor">{{Cite journal|year=2010|title=A stranger silence still: The need for feminist social research on climate change|journal=The Sociological Review|volume=57|issue=2_suppl|pages=124–140|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.2010.01889.x|last1=MacGregor|first1=S.|s2cid=141663550}}</ref> attests that by framing climate change as an issue of 'hard' natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity.<ref name="MacGregor" /><ref name="Boyd" />

=== Social media ===
Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57% of Facebook users are women, which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media. On average, women have 8% more friends and account for 62% of posts that are shared via Facebook.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gourdreau |first1=Jenna |date=26 April 2010 |title=What men and women are doing on Facebook |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/2010/04/26/popular-social-networking-sites-forbes-woman-time-facebook-twitter.html |access-date=12 April 2016 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408065455/https://www.forbes.com/2010/04/26/popular-social-networking-sites-forbes-woman-time-facebook-twitter.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures, women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tufekci |first1=Zeynep |title=Gender, social capital and social network(ing) sites: Women bonding, men searching |publisher=American Sociological Association |url=https://research.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/4/2/6/9/p242696_index.html |access-date=14 April 2016 |date=2008-07-31 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303090408/https://research.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/4/2/6/9/p242696_index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57% of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|last2=Araüna-Baró|first2=Núria|last3=Martínez-Martínez|first3=Inmaculada José|date=1 June 2013|title=Advertising Stereotypes and Gender Representation in Social Networking Sites|journal=Comunicar|volume=21|issue=41|pages=177–186|doi=10.3916/C41-2013-17|last1=Tortajada-Giménez|first1=Iolanda|doi-access=free|hdl=10272/7056|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, 58% of women and 45% of men do not look into the camera, which creates an illusion of withdrawal.<ref name="auto"/> Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways.<ref name="auto"/>

Adolescent girls generally use social networking sites as a tool to communicate with peers and reinforce existing relationships; boys on the other hand tend to use social networking sites as a tool to meet new friends and acquaintances.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Older adolescents' motivations for social network site use: The influence of gender, group identity, and collective self-esteem|edition=2|pages=209–213|last1=Barker|first1=V|journal=Cyberpsychology & Behavior |year=2009|volume=12|issue=2|doi=10.1089/cpb.2008.0228|pmid=19250021|s2cid=5446136}}</ref> Furthermore, social networking sites have allowed individuals to truly express themselves, as they are able to create an identity and socialize with other individuals that can relate.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal|last1=de Ridder|first1=Sander|last2=van Bauwel|first2=Sofie|title=Youth and intimate media cultures: Gender, sexuality, relationships, and desire as storytelling practices in social networking sites|journal=Communications|date=1 January 2015|volume=40|issue=3|doi=10.1515/commun-2015-0012|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5889652/file/7011376.pdf|hdl=1854/LU-5889652|s2cid=199487985|hdl-access=free|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421094429/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5889652/file/7011376.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Social networking sites have also given individuals access to create a space where they feel more comfortable about their sexuality.<ref name="auto1"/> Recent research has indicated that social media is becoming a stronger part of younger individuals' media culture, as more intimate stories are being told via social media and are being intertwined with gender, sexuality, and relationships.<ref name="auto1"/>

Research has found that almost all U.S. teens (95%) aged 12 through 17 are online, compared to only 78% of adults. Of these teens, 80% have profiles on social media sites, as compared to only 64% of the online population aged 30 and older. According to a study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, 11-to-18-year-olds spend on average over one and a half hours a day using a computer and 27 minutes per day visiting social network sites, i.e. the latter accounts for about one fourth of their daily computer use.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last1=Herring|first1=Susan|author-link1=Susan Herring|last2=Kapidzic|first2=Sanja|title=Teens, Gender, and Self-Presentation in Social Media|date=2015|publisher=International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences|edition=2}}</ref>

Studies have shown that female users tend to post more "cute" pictures, while male participants were more likely to post pictures of themselves in activities. Women in the U.S. also tend to post more pictures of friends, while men tend to post more about sports and humorous links. The study also found that males would post more alcohol and sexual references.<ref name="auto2"/> The roles were reversed however, when looking at a teenage dating site: women made sexual references significantly more often than males. Boys share more personal information, while girls are more conservative about the personal information they post. Boys, meanwhile, are more likely to orient towards technology, sports, and humor in the information they post to their profile.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Malin|first1=Sveningsson Elm|title=Doing and undoing gender in a Swedish Internet community|url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-18434|access-date=14 April 2016|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Cambridge|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217115854/https://kau.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A592066&dswid=1543|url-status=live}}</ref>

Research in the 1990s suggested that different genders display certain traits, such as being active, attractive, dependent, dominant, independent, sentimental, sexy, and submissive, in online interaction.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gauntlett|first1=D|title=Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScR9AgAAQBAJ&q=gender%2Band%2Bsocial%2Bmedia&pg=PP1|access-date=14 April 2016|isbn=978-1-134-15502-6|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411170255/https://books.google.com/books?id=ScR9AgAAQBAJ&q=gender%2Band%2Bsocial%2Bmedia&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though these traits continue to be displayed through gender stereotypes, recent studies show that this is not necessarily the case any more.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Herring|first1=Susan C.|author-link1=Susan Herring|first2=Sanja |last2=Kapidzic |title=Teens, Gender, and Self-Presentation in Social Media. Sciences|url=https://info.ils.indiana.edu/~herring/teens.gender.pdf|publisher=Oxford|access-date=14 April 2016|archive-date=17 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217144705/https://info.ils.indiana.edu/~herring/teens.gender.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>