Editing Epistemology (section)

== Related fields ==
Epistemology and [[psychology]] were not defined as distinct fields until the 19th century; earlier investigations about knowledge often do not fit neatly into today's academic categories.<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|p=2}}</ref> Both contemporary disciplines study beliefs and the mental processes responsible for their formation and change. One key contrast is that psychology describes what beliefs people have and how they acquire them, thereby explaining why someone has a specific belief. The focus of epistemology is on evaluating beliefs, leading to a judgment about whether a belief is justified and rational in a particular case.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kitchener|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q_MxOPSqRjYC&pg=PA119 119]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} }}</ref> Epistemology also shares a close connection with [[cognitive science]], which understands mental events as processes that transform [[information]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> [[Artificial intelligence]] relies on the insights of epistemology and cognitive science to implement concrete solutions to problems associated with [[knowledge representation]] and [[automatic reasoning]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wheeler|Pereira|2004|pp=469–470, 472, 491}}</ref>

[[Logic]] is the study of correct reasoning. For epistemology, it is relevant to inferential knowledge, which arises when a person reasons from one known fact to another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rosenberg|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UgVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184]}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 4.1 Foundationalism}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|p=90}} }}</ref> This is the case, for example, when inferring that it rained based on the observation that the streets are wet.<ref>{{harvnb|Pomerol|2012|p=190}}</ref> Whether an inferential belief amounts to knowledge depends on the form of [[Logical reasoning|reasoning]] used, in particular, that the process does not violate the [[laws of thought|laws of logic]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stairs|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}}</ref> Another overlap between the two fields is found in the epistemic approach to [[fallacy|fallacies]].<ref name="auto3">{{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=§ 3.5 The Epistemic Approach to Fallacies}}</ref> Fallacies are faulty arguments based on incorrect reasoning.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Chatfield|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Xg4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}} }}</ref> The epistemic approach to fallacies explains why they are faulty, stating that arguments aim to expand knowledge. According to this view, an argument is a fallacy if it fails to do so.<ref name="auto3"/> A further intersection is found in [[epistemic logic]], which uses formal logical devices to study epistemological concepts like ''knowledge'' and ''belief''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o7m3amAbDEsC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Rendsvig|Symons|Wang|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

Both [[decision theory]] and epistemology are interested in the foundations of rational thought and the role of beliefs. Unlike many approaches in epistemology, the main focus of decision theory lies less in the theoretical and more in the practical side, exploring how beliefs are translated into action.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section, § 7. Concluding Remarks}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|Leach|McClennen|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7fntCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} }}</ref> Decision theorists examine the reasoning involved in decision-making and the standards of good decisions,<ref>{{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section}}</ref> identifying beliefs as a central aspect of decision-making. One of their innovations is to distinguish between weaker and stronger beliefs, which helps them consider the effects of uncertainty on decisions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=§ 7. Concluding Remarks}} }}</ref>

Epistemology and [[education]] have a shared interest in knowledge, with one difference being that education focuses on the transmission of knowledge, exploring the roles of both learner and teacher.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chazan|2022|p=15}} | {{harvnb|Leong|2007|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/epistemology-and-education § Abstract, § Some Implications for Educators]}} }}</ref> [[Learning theory (education)|Learning theory]] examines how people acquire knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kelly|2004|pp=183–184}} | {{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=4}} }}</ref> [[Behaviorism|Behavioral]] learning theories explain the process in terms of behavior changes, for example, by [[Classical conditioning|associating a certain response with a particular stimulus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=11}}</ref> [[Cognitivism (psychology)|Cognitive]] learning theories study how the cognitive processes that affect knowledge acquisition transform information.<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|pp=11–12}}</ref> [[Pedagogy]] looks at the transmission of knowledge from the teacher's perspective, exploring the [[teaching method]]s they may employ.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watkins|Mortimore|1999|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Payne|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=abocsyBzTMMC&pg=PA264 264]}} | {{harvnb|Gabriel|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PreYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} }}</ref> In teacher-centered methods, the teacher serves as the main authority delivering knowledge and guiding the learning process. In [[Student-centered learning|student-centered methods]], the teacher primarily supports and facilitates the learning process, allowing students to take a more active role.<ref>{{harvnb|Emaliana|2017|pp=59–61}}</ref> The beliefs students have about knowledge, called ''[[personal epistemology]]'', influence their intellectual development and learning success.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hofer|2008|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_1 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Hofer|2001|pp=353–354, 369–370}} }}</ref>

The [[anthropology]] of knowledge examines how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated. It studies the social and cultural circumstances that affect how knowledge is reproduced and changes, covering the role of institutions like university departments and scientific journals as well as face-to-face discussions and online communications. This field has a broad concept of knowledge, encompassing various forms of understanding and culture, including practical skills. Unlike epistemology, it is not interested in whether a belief is true or justified but in how understanding is reproduced in society.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Barth|2002|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> A closely related field, the [[sociology of knowledge]] has a similar conception of knowledge. It explores how physical, demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors impact knowledge. This field examines in what sociohistorical contexts knowledge emerges and the effects it has on people, for example, how socioeconomic conditions are related to the [[dominant ideology]] in a society.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coser|2009|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Tufari|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Scheler|Stikkers|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pFqrO7Lxiw4C&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref>