Editing Edward I of England (section)

===Constitutional crisis===
The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects. Whereas the King had levied only three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–1297, raising over £200,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1972|p=179}}.</ref>{{efn|£141m at 2017 prices, or 20 million days' labour for a skilled tradesman.<ref>{{harvnb|National Archives|2024}}</ref>}} Along with this came the burden of [[prise]]s, seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the ''[[maltolt]]'' ("unjustly taken").<ref>{{Harvnb|Harriss|1975|p=57}}.</ref> The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, which eventually led to serious political opposition. The initial resistance was caused not by the lay taxes, but by clerical subsidies. In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one-half of all clerical revenues. There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening opponents with [[outlaw]]ry, and the grant was eventually made.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=403–404}}.</ref> At the time, [[Robert Winchelsey]], the designated Archbishop of Canterbury, was in Italy to receive consecration.<ref name=Powicke1962P671/>{{Efn|Winchelsey's consecration was held up by the protracted [[1292–1294 papal election]].<ref name="Powicke1962P671">{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=671}}.</ref>}} Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant that November. In 1296, his position changed when he received the [[papal bull]] ''[[Clericis laicos]]''. This prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=674}}.</ref> When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=675}}.</ref> Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=417}}.</ref> By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull ''[[Etsi de statu]]'', which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=430}}.</ref> This allowed Edward to collect considerable sums by taxing the English clergy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=562}}.</ref>
{{Quote box|'''Edward'''<br />By God, Sir Earl, either go or hang<br />'''Roger Bigod'''<br />By that same oath, O king, I shall neither go nor hang|Chronicle of [[Walter of Guisborough]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=416}}.</ref>|align=right}}

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface. This resistance focused on the King's right to demand military service and his right to levy taxes. At the Salisbury Parliament of February 1297, the [[Earl Marshal]] [[Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk]], objected to a royal summons of military service. Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1972|p=251}}.</ref> In July, Bigod and [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]] and [[Constable of England]], drew up a series of complaints known as the [[Remonstrances]], in which objections to the high level of taxation were voiced.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harriss|1975|p=61}}.</ref> Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy. This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent from only a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives of the communities in Parliament.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=422}}.</ref> While Edward was in [[Winchelsea]], preparing for the [[English expedition to Flanders (1297–1298)|campaign in Flanders]], Bigod and de Bohun arrived at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=682}}.</ref> As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=425}}, {{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=683}}.</ref> The English defeat by the Scots at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]] resolved the situation. The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=427}}.</ref> Edward signed the ''[[Confirmatio cartarum]]''{{Spaced ndash}}a confirmation of Magna Carta and its accompanying [[Charter of the Forest]]{{Spaced ndash}}and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=170}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=2}}</ref>

Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Scottish campaign. Over the following years he would be held to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest. In the Parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the [[royal forest]]s, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=525–526, 547–548}}.</ref> Ultimately, it was a change in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward. De Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Scottish campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=697}}.</ref> In 1302 Bigod arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=537–538}}.</ref> Edward got his revenge on Winchelsey, who had been opposed to the King's policy of clerical taxation,<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|pp=172–173}}.</ref> in 1305, when [[Clement V]] was elected pope. Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=175}}.</ref>