Editing Educational psychology (section)

==Perspectives==

===Behavioral===
[[Applied behavior analysis]], a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of [[operant conditioning]], is effective in a range of educational settings.<ref name=Alberto>Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2003) ''Applied behavior analysis for teachers'' (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill.</ref> For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.<ref name=mcgoey>McGoey, K.E. & DuPaul, G.J. (2000) Token reinforcement, and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ''School Psychology Quarterly'', 15, 330–43.</ref><ref name=theodore>Theodore, L.A.; Bray, M.A.; Kehle, T.J. & Jenson, W.R. (2001) Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. ''Journal of School Psychology'', 39, 267–77.</ref> Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of [[self-determination theory]], who claim that praise and other rewards undermine [[intrinsic motivation]]. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.<ref name=lepper>[[Mark Lepper|Lepper, M. R.]]; Greene, D. & [[Richard E. Nisbett|Nisbett, R.E.]] (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', 28, 129–37.</ref> But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.<ref name=cameron>Cameron, J.; Pierce, W.D.; Banko, K.M. & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', 97, 641–55.</ref><ref>Pierce, W.D. & Cameron, J. (2002). A summary of the effects of reward contingencies on interest and performance. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', 3, 222–26. [http://www.baojournal.com ABO]</ref> Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including [[pivotal response therapy]] which is used to treat [[autism spectrum disorder]]s.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

===Cognitive===
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as [[trait theory|traits]], [[beliefs]], [[memories]], [[motivation]]s, and [[emotion]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Crocker|first1=Laura D.|last2=Heller|first2=Wendy|last3=Warren|first3=Stacie L.|last4=O'Hare|first4=Aminda J.|last5=Infantolino|first5=Zachary P.|last6=Miller|first6=Gregory A.|date=2013-06-11|title=Relationships among cognition, emotion, and motivation: implications for intervention and neuroplasticity in psychopathology|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=7|pages=261|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2013.00261|issn=1662-5161|pmc=3678097|pmid=23781184|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is [[perceive]]d, [[Information processing (psychology)|processed]], stored, [[information retrieval|retrieved]] and [[forgot]]ten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by [[Allan Paivio]]'s [[dual coding theory]]. Educational psychologists have used [[Dual-coding theory|dual coding theory]] and [[cognitive load]] theory to explain how people learn from [[multimedia]] presentations.<ref name=Mayer>[[Richard E. Mayer|Mayer, R.E.]] (2001). ''Multimedia learning''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[Image:KrugDavisGlover1990.png|right|thumb|Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover<ref name=krug>Krug, D.; Davis, T.B.; Glover, J.A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', 82, 366–71.</ref> demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).]]
The [[spaced learning]] effect, a [[cognitive]] phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within [[education]].<ref name=dempster>Dempster, F.N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. ''[[Educational Psychology Review]]'', 1, 309–30.</ref> For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).<ref name=krug/> Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using [[mnemonic]]s for immediate and delayed retention of information.<ref name=carney>Carney, R.N. & Levin, J.R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! ''[[Contemporary Educational Psychology]]'', 25, 499–508.</ref>

[[Problem solving]], according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to [[learning]]. It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a [[schema (psychology)|schema]] retrieved from [[long-term memory]]. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during [[working memory]]. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory, they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their [[memory]]. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.<ref name=kalyuga>Kalyuga, S.; Chandler, P.; Tuovinen, J. & [[John Sweller|Sweller, J.]] (2001). When problem-solving is superior to studying worked examples. ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', 93, 579–88.</ref> The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of [[analogical]] thinking to problem-solving.

====Cognitive view of intelligence====
[[File:Figural Relationships.svg|right|thumb|An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test]]
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], [[creativity]], [[cognitive style]], [[motivation]], and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[learning disability]], [[dyslexia]], and [[speech disorder]]. Less common disabilities include [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and [[blindness]].<ref name=woolfolk/>

Although theories of [[intelligence]] have been discussed by philosophers since [[Plato]], [[intelligence testing]] is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single [[factor analysis|factor]] known as [[general intelligence factor|general intelligence]],<ref name=spearman1904>Spearman, C. (1904) "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. ''American Journal of Psychology'', 15, 201–93.</ref> multiple factors (e.g., [[Howard Gardner|Gardner's]] [[theory of multiple intelligences]]<ref>Gardner, Howard. (1983) ''Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. New York: Basic Books.</ref>), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] and the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC]]<ref>Wechsler, D. (1949). ''The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.'' New York: Psychological Corp.</ref> are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as [[gifted]] are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as [[phonological awareness]]. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality [[trait theory|traits]] are also important, with people higher in [[conscientiousness]] and [[hope]] attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.<ref>Day, L.; Hanson, K.; Maltby, J.; Proctor, C.L. & Wood, A.M. (in press). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928104551/http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/alex.wood/hope_education.pdf Hope uniquely predicts objective academic achievement above intelligence, personality, and previous academic achievement.] ''Journal of Research in Personality''.</ref>

===Developmental===
{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}
[[Developmental psychology]], and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.<ref>Furth, H.G. & Wachs, H. (1975). ''Thinking goes to school: Piaget's theory in practice''. Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref> In the same direction, the [[neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]] suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and [[working memory]] capacities that characterize successive age levels.<ref>Demetriou, A. & Valanides, N. (1998). A three-level theory of the developing mind: Basic principles and implications for instruction and assessment. In R.J. Sternberg & W.M. Williams (Eds.), ''Intelligence, instruction, and assessment'' (pp. 149–99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</ref><ref name="Demetriou, A. 2010">Demetriou, A.; Spanoudis, G. & Mouyi, A. (2010). A Three-level Model of the Developing Mind: Functional and Neuronal Substantiation. In M. Ferrari and L. Vuletic (Eds.), ''The Developmental Relations between Mind, Brain, and Education: Essays in Honor of Robbie Case''. New York: Springer.</ref>

Second, the psychology of [[cognitive development]] involves understanding how [[cognitive]] change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. [[Education]] also capitalizes on [[cognitive]] change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or [[Mind|mental]] actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.<ref name="Demetriou, A. 2010"/><ref>Case, R. (1985). ''Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood.'' New York: Academic Press.</ref>

Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.<ref name="Demetriou, A. 2010"/><ref>Case, R. (1992). The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's mathematical and scientific thought. In A. Demetriou, M. Shayer, & A. Efklides (Eds.), ''Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and applications to education'' (pp. 52–65). London: Routledge.</ref>

===Constructivist===
{{Main|Constructivism (learning theory)|l1=Constructivism}}
Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], from [[social constructivism (learning theory)|social constructivism]]. The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself.<ref>McMahon, M. (1997, December). Social Constructivism and the World Wide Web - A Paradigm for Learning. Paper presented at the ASCILITE conference. Perth, Australia.</ref> It regards learning as a process of enculturation. People learn by exposure to the culture of practitioners. They observe and practice the behavior of practitioners and 'pick up relevant jargon, imitate behavior, and gradually start to act in accordance with the norms of the practice'.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=John Seely|last2=Collins|first2=Allan|last3=Duguid|first3=Paul|date=1989|title=Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning|journal=Educational Researcher|volume=18|issue=1|pages=32–42|issn=0013-189X|jstor=1176008|hdl=2142/17979|hdl-access=free}}</ref> So, a student learns to become a mathematician through exposure to mathematician using tools to solve mathematical problems. So in order to master a particular domain of knowledge it is not enough for students to learn the concepts of the domain. They should be exposed to the use of the concepts in authentic activities by the practitioners of the domain.<ref name=":0" />

A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. "[[Zone of Proximal Development]]" (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual's mental development. He believed that tasks individuals can do on their own do not give a complete understanding of their mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&user=djqLs50AAAAJ&citation_for_view=djqLs50AAAAJ:umqufdRvDiIC|title=Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes|last=Vygotsky|first=Lev Semenovich|date=1980|publisher=Harvard university press}}</ref> He cited a famous example to make his case. Two children in school who originally can solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8) might be at different developmental levels. If each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said “This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call ''the zone of proximal development.''”<ref name=":1" /> He further said that the ZPD “defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state.”<ref name=":1" /> The zone is bracketed by the learner's current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity.

Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children's learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivism]]): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., [[behaviorism]]): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are separate, but interactive processes (e.g., [[Gestalt psychology|gestaltism]]): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should always precede development in the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child can learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child's developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child can reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent capabilities. The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner's peer or someone their junior. The MKO need not even be a person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html|title=Vygotsky {{!}} Simply Psychology|website=www.simplypsychology.org|access-date=2019-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805212531/https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html|archive-date=2019-08-05|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, [[Jerome Bruner]] and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.<ref name="educational psychology">Seifert, Kelvin & Sutton, Rosemary. ''[http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Educational-Psychology.pdf Educational Psychology: Second Edition]''. Global Text Project, 2009, pp.&nbsp;33–37.</ref>

==== Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development ====
[[Jean Piaget]] was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a [[Schema (psychology)|schema]] operating at birth that he called "reflexes". Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.<ref name=Huitt>{{cite journal|last1=Huitt|first1=W|last2=Hummel |first2=J|title=Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development|journal=Educational Psychology Interactive|year=2003|url=http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html}}</ref>