Editing Eastern philosophy (section)

==East Asian philosophies==
{{Main|Chinese philosophy|Japanese philosophy|Korean philosophy|Vietnamese philosophy}}

[[Image:Pyd.jpg|thumb|One of the main halls of the ''[[Guozijian]]'' (Imperial College) in downtown [[Beijing]], the highest institution of higher learning in pre-modern China]]

===Chinese===
East Asian philosophical thought began in [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]], and [[Chinese philosophy]] begins during the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).<ref>Garfield  (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); ''The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy'', Chinese philosophy.</ref><ref name="pe">{{cite book|last= Ebrey |first=Patricia|year=2010 |page= 42|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major Chinese philosophical schools ([[Confucianism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], and [[Daoism]]) as well as numerous less influential schools ([[Mohism]], [[School of Names]], [[School of Yin Yang]]). These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political, and ethical theories which, along with [[Chinese Buddhism]], had a direct influence on the rest of [[East Asian cultural sphere|the East Asian cultural sphere]]. Buddhism began arriving in China during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE), through a [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|gradual Silk road transmission]] and gradually developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/[[Zen]]).

====Confucianism====
{{Main|Confucianism}}
[[File:Konfuzius-1770.jpg|thumb|x230px|[[Confucius]]]]
[[Confucianism]] (孔教, ''Kǒngjiào'' — "Confucius' doctrine"), also known as "Ruism" (''Rújiào'' — "doctrine of the scholars"), is a Chinese philosophical system with ritual, moral, and religious applications.<ref>Yao, Xinzhong (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-64312-0}}. pp. 38–47.</ref> The tradition developed around the teachings of [[Confucius]] (''Kǒng Fūzǐ'', 孔夫子, "Master Kong", 551–479 BCE) who saw himself as transmitting the values and theology of the ancestors before him.<ref>Fung, Yiu-ming (2008), "Problematizing Contemporary Confucianism in East Asia", in Richey, Jeffrey, Teaching Confucianism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-804256-6}}. p. 163.</ref> Other influential classical Confucian philosophers include [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Kuang]] who famously disagreed on the innate moral nature of humans.

Confucianism focuses on humanistic values like familial and social harmony, [[filial piety]] (孝, ''xiào''), ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|Rén]]'' (仁, "benevolence" or "humaneness") and ''[[Li (Confucianism)|Lǐ]]'' (禮/礼) which is a system of ritual norms that determines how a person should act to be in harmony with the law of Heaven. Confucianism traditionally holds that these values are based on the transcendent principle known as [[Tian|Heaven]] (''Tiān'' 天), and also includes the belief in spirits or gods (''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shén]]'').<ref>Littlejohn, Ronnie (2010), Confucianism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, {{ISBN|1-84885-174-X}}. pp. 34–36.</ref>

Confucianism was a major ideology of the imperial state during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE) and was revived as [[Neo-Confucianism]] during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907). During later Chinese dynasties like [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297) and the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean [[Joseon dynasty]] (1392–1897) a resurgent [[Neo-Confucianism]] led by thinkers such as [[Zhu Xi]] (1130–1200) and [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. Beginning in the [[Song dynasty]], [[Confucian classics]] were the basis of the [[imperial exams]] and became the core philosophy of the [[Scholar-officials|scholar-official class]]. Confucianism suffered setbacks during the 20th century, but is recently undergoing a revival, which is termed [[New Confucianism]].<ref>Benjamin Elman, John Duncan and Herman Ooms ed. ''Rethinking Confucianism: Past and Present in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam''(Los Angeles: UCLA Asian Pacific Monograph Series, 2002).</ref>

Traditionally, East Asian cultures and countries in the [[East Asian cultural sphere|cultural sphere]] are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including [[Culture of China|Mainland China]], [[Culture of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Culture of Macau|Macau]], [[Culture of Japan|Japan]], [[Culture of Korea|Korea]], [[Culture of Taiwan|Taiwan]], and [[Culture of Vietnam|Vietnam]] as well as various overseas territories settled predominantly by [[Overseas Chinese]], such as [[Culture of Singapore|Singapore]].

====Legalism====
[[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] (法家，[[pinyin]]: ''Fǎjiā;'' school of "methods" or "standards")<ref>Paul R. Goldin, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. pp. 6, 7 https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308062755/https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_ |date=8 March 2021 }}</ref> was a philosophical tradition which focused on laws, realpolitik, and bureaucratic management.<ref>Ross Terril 2003 p. 68. The New Chinese Empire. https://books.google.com/books?id=TKowRrrz5BIC&pg=PA68</ref> Largely ignoring [[morality]] or idealized views of how society should be, they focused on the pragmatic [[government]] through the power of the [[Autocracy|autocrat]] and [[State (polity)|state]]. Their goal was to achieve increased order, security, and stability.<ref>Pines, Yuri, "Legalism in Chinese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 2. Philosophical Foundations. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112094249/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/ |date=12 January 2021 }}</ref> They were initially influenced by Mohist ideas.<ref>Hansen, Chad. Philosophy East & West. Jul 94, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp. 54, 435. Fa (standards: laws) and meaning changes in Chinese philosophy.

Chad Hansen, Shen Buhai http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119041933/http://philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm |date=19 November 2017 }}</ref> A key figure of this school was administrator and political philosopher [[Shen Buhai]] (c. 400–337 BCE).<ref>Creel, 1974 p. 4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century BCE.</ref> Another central figure, [[Shang Yang]] (390–338 BCE), was a leading statesman and reformer who transformed the [[Qin (state)|Qin state]] into the dominant power that conquered the rest of China in 221 BCE.<ref>Chad Hansen, University of Hong Kong. Lord Shang. http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426092620/http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm |date=26 April 2012 }}</ref> Shen's successor [[Han Fei]] (c. 280–233 BCE) synthesized the thought of the other Legalists in his [[eponym]]ous text, the ''[[Han Feizi]],'' one of the most influential Legalist texts which was used by successive Chinese statesmen and rulers as a guide for statesmanship and bureaucratic organization of the imperial state.<ref>Paul R. Goldin, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. p. 15 https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308062755/https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_ |date=8 March 2021 }}</ref><ref>Hengy Chye Kiang 1999. p.v44. Cities of Aristocrats and Bureaucrats. https://books.google.com/books?id=BIgS4p8NykYC&pg=PA44</ref>

====Mohism====
[[Mohism]] (墨家，''Mòjiā''; "School of Mo"), was founded by [[Mozi]] (c. 470–391 BCE) and his students. It was a major school of thought and rival of Confucianism and Taoism during the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (c. 770–221 BCE). The main text of the school is the [[Mozi (book)|''Mozi'' (book)]]. The administrative thought of Mohism was later absorbed by Legalism, their ethics absorbed into Confucianism and its books were also merged into the [[Taoist canon]], as Mohism all but disappeared as an independent school after the [[Qin dynasty]] era.

Mohism is best known for the idea of "impartial care" ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 兼愛; [[pinyin]]: ''jiān ài''; literally: "inclusive love/care").<ref>The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward Craig. Routledge Publishing. 2005.</ref> According to Master Mo, persons should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to them. Mo also advocated impartial [[meritocracy]] in government which should be based on talent, not blood relations. Mozi was against Confucian ritualism, instead emphasizing [[Pragmatism|pragmatic]] survival through farming, [[fortification]], and [[Public administration|statecraft]]. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize the general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the ''Will of Heaven'', but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels [[utilitarianism]].

Mohism was also associated with and influenced by a separate philosophical school known as the [[School of Names]] (''Míngjiā''; also known as 'Logicians'), that focused on the [[philosophy of language]], [[definition]], and [[logic]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Fenrong |title=A Note on Mohist Logic |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241916514 |website=Research Gate |access-date=May 1, 2024 |date=January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Willman |first1=Marshall D |title=Logic and Language in Early Chinese Philosophy |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-logic-language/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=May 1, 2024 |date=2023}}</ref>

====Taoism====
[[File:WLA vanda The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.jpg|thumb|x160px|The [[Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove]], embroidery, 1860–1880]]
{{Main|Taoist philosophy}}
Taoism (or Daoism) is a term for various philosophies and religious systems that emphasize harmony with the ''[[Tao]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 道; [[pinyin]]: ''Dào''; literally: "the Way") which is seen as the principle which is the source, pattern, and substance of everything that exists.<ref>Pollard; Rosenberg; Tignor, Elizabeth; Clifford; Robert (2011). ''Worlds Together Worlds Apart''. New York, New York: Norton. p. 164. {{ISBN|978-0-393-91847-2}}.</ref> Taoism tends to emphasize virtues such as ''[[wu wei]]'' (effortless action), ''[[ziran]]'' (naturalness), [[Pu (Daoism)|''pu'']] (simplicity), and spontaneity while placing less emphasis on norms and ritual (as opposed to Confucianism). The [[Taoism and death|attainment of immortality]] through external alchemy ([[waidan]]) and internal alchemy ([[neidan]]) was an important goal for many Taoists historically.<ref>Henri Maspero, ''Taoism and Chinese Religion'', translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. (University of Massachusetts Press, 1981).</ref>

Early forms of Taoism developed in the 4th century BCE, influenced by the cosmological theories of the [[School of Naturalists]] and the ''[[I Ching]].'' The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang was another philosophical school that synthesized the concepts of [[yin-yang]] and the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]]; [[Zou Yan]] is considered the founder.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan "Zou Yan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426150251/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan |date=26 April 2015 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 March 2011.</ref>

The ''[[Dao De Jing]]'' (''Tao-Te-Ching,'' c. 4th century BCE), traditionally attributed to [[Laozi]], and the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Nan Hua Jing]]'' (''Zhuang Zi'') are considered the key texts of the tradition.<ref>Kohn, Livia, ed. ''Daoism Handbook'' (Leiden: Brill, 2000). p. 44.</ref> The first organized form of Taoism, the [[Tianshi Dao|Tianshi]] (Celestial Masters') school arose in the 2nd century CE. [[Xuanxue]] ("deep learning", also "Neo-Taoism") was a major philosophical movement influenced by Confucian scholarship, which focused on the interpretation of the ''[[Yijing]],'' ''[[Daodejing]],'' and ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' and which flourished during the third to sixth centuries CE.<ref>Chan, Alan, "Neo-Daoism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/neo-daoism/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318042139/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/neo-daoism/ |date=18 March 2019 }}.</ref> The most important philosophers of this movement were [[He Yan]], [[Wang Bi]], the [[Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove]], [[Ge Hong]], and [[Guo Xiang]].<ref>"Daoist Philosophy," by Ronnie Littlejohn, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref> Thinkers like He Yan and Wang Bi focused on the deep nature of Tao, which they saw as being best exemplified by the term "Wu" (nothingness, non-being, negativity).<ref>Chan, Alan, "Neo-Daoism", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/neo-daoism/ .</ref>

Other schools rose to prominence throughout Chinese history, such as the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing school]] during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907), the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao school]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) and the [[Quanzhen School]] which develop during the 13th–14th centuries and during the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref>"Daoist Philosophy," by Ronnie Littlejohn, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref> The later Taoist traditions were also influenced by [[Chinese Buddhism]].<ref>"Daoist Philosophy," by Ronnie Littlejohn, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref>

===Modern East Asian philosophy===
====Chinese====
[[File:熊十力 1960s.jpg|thumb|right|[[Xiong Shili]] circa 1960]]

Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism (''Jingxue''), Neo-Confucianism (''Lixue''), Buddhism, Daoism, and ''Xixue'' ("[[Western learning|Western Learning]]" which arose during the late [[Ming dynasty]]).<ref>"Modern Chinese Philosophy," by Yih-Hsien Yu, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref>

The [[Opium war|Opium war of 1839–42]] saw the beginning of Western and Japanese invasions and exploitation of China which was humiliating to Chinese thinkers. The late 19th and early 20th century saw Chinese thinkers such as [[Zhang Zhidong]] looking to Western practical knowledge as a way to preserve traditional Chinese culture, a doctrine that he defined as "Chinese Learning as Substance and Western Learning as Function" (''Zhongti Xiyong'').<ref>"Modern Chinese Philosophy," by Yih-Hsien Yu, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref>

The traditionalists meanwhile sought to revive and fortify traditional Chinese philosophical schools. Chinese Buddhist thought was promoted by thinkers like Yang Rensan and Ou-Yang Jingwu<ref>"Modern Chinese Philosophy," by Yih-Hsien Yu, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref> while another influential movement is [[New Confucianism]] (Chinese: 新儒家; [[pinyin]]: ''xīn rú jiā''). New Confucianism is a traditionalist revival of Confucian thought in China beginning in the 20th-century [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican China]] which is also associated with [[New Conservatism (China)|New Conservatism]]. Key New Confucians of the first generation are [[Xiong Shili]] and [[Feng Youlan|Fung Youlan]].<ref>"Modern Chinese Philosophy," by Yih-Hsien Yu, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, <nowiki>http://www.iep.utm.edu/</nowiki>.</ref> The second generation (1950–1979) include individuals like [[Tang Junyi]], [[Mou Zongsan]], and [[Xu Fuguan]], all three students of Xiong Shili. Together with [[Zhang Junmai]], the second generation published the [[A Manifesto for a Re-appraisal of Sinology and Reconstruction of Chinese Culture|New Confucian Manifesto]] in 1958.

====Japanese====
[[File:FukuzawaYukichi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fukuzawa Yukichi]] (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker]]
Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy. Japan's rapid modernization was partly aided by the early study of western science (known as [[Rangaku]]) during the [[Edo period]] (1603–1868). Another intellectual movement during the Edo period was [[Kokugaku]] (national study), which sought to focus on the study of ancient Japanese thought, classic texts, and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist cultures.<ref>Earl, David Margarey, Emperor and Nation in Japan, Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period, University of Washington Press, 1964, pp. 66 ff.</ref> A key figure of this movement is [[Motoori Norinaga]] (1730–1801), who argued that the essence of classic Japanese literature and culture was a sense called [[mono no aware]] ("sorrow at evanescence").<ref>Motoori, Norinaga (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zk4EucRlvSwC&dq=motoori+norinaga&pg=PR9 ''The Poetics of Motoori Norinaga: A Hermeneutical Journey''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151448/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zk4EucRlvSwC&dq=motoori+norinaga&pg=PR9 |date=3 July 2023 }}. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-3078-6}}.</ref>

In the [[Meiji period]] (1868–1912), the modernist [[Meirokusha]] (Meiji 6, formed in 1874) intellectual society promoted [[Age of Enlightenment|European enlightenment]] thought. Meirokusha philosophers like [[Mori Arinori]], [[Nishi Amane]], and [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]] sought ways to combine Western ideas with [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]] and values. The [[Shōwa period]] (1926–1989) saw the rise of [[State Shinto]] and [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|Japanese nationalism]].

Japanese Buddhist philosophy was influenced by the work of the [[Kyoto School]] which drew from western philosophers (especially German philosophy) and Buddhist thought and included [[Kitaro Nishida]], [[Keiji Nishitani]], [[Hajime Tanabe]], and [[Masao Abe]]. The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the formation of the Kyoto school is [[Critical Buddhism]], which argues against several Mahayana concepts such as [[Buddha nature|Buddha-nature]] and [[Hongaku|original enlightenment]].<ref name="mbingenheimer.net"/>

====North Korean====
{{Main|Juche}}
Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official political [[ideology]] of [[North Korea]], described by the regime as [[Kim Il-Sung]]'s "original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought".<ref name="North Korea: State of Paranoia">{{cite book |author= Paul French|date= 2014|title= North Korea: State of Paranoia|publisher= Zed Books|isbn= 978-1-78032-947-5}}<!--|access-date= June 2015--> {{page needed|date=July 2015}}</ref> The idea states that an individual is "the master of his destiny"<ref name="Juche Idea: Answers to Hundred Questions">{{cite book|author=North Korean Government|date=2014|title=Juche Idea: Answers to Hundred Questions|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House, Democratic People's Republic of Korea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yC42jwEACAAJ|isbn=978-9946-0-0822-6|access-date=31 October 2020|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151448/https://books.google.com/books?id=yC42jwEACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> and that the North Korean masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction".<ref name="Juche Idea: Answers to Hundred Questions"/>