Editing Easter Island (section)

===Stone work===
The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of local stone:
* [[Basalt]], a hard, dense stone used for [[basalt toki|toki]] and at least [[Hoa Hakananai'a|one of the moai]].
* [[Obsidian]], a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as [[Mataa]] and for the black pupils of the eyes of the moai.
* Red [[scoria]] from [[Puna Pau]], a very light red stone used for the [[pukao]] and a few moai.
* [[Tuff]] from [[Rano Raraku]], a much more easily worked rock than basalt that was used for most of the moai.

===={{anchor|Statues}}Moai (statues) ====
The large stone statues, or ''moai'', for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 1100–1680&nbsp;CE (rectified radio-carbon dates).<ref name=beck>{{citation |first=J. Warren |last=Beck |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blsknwEpGSoC&pg=PA100 |title=Easter Island: Scientific Exploration into the World's Environmental Problems in Microcosm |chapter=Mata Ki Te Rangi: Eyes towards the Heavens |page=100 |access-date=27 March 2013 |year=2003 |publisher=Springer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412174906/https://books.google.com/books?id=blsknwEpGSoC&pg=PA100 |archive-date=12 April 2016 |isbn=978-0-306-47494-1 }}</ref> A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eisp.org/279/ |title=What is the Easter Island Statue Project? |publisher=Easter Island Statue Project |date=6 May 2009 |author=Jo Anne van Tilburg |access-date=9 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309163830/http://www.eisp.org/279/ |archive-date=9 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them ending at the top of the thighs; a small number are complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their hands over their stomachs.<ref>Skjølsvold, Arne "Report 14: The Stone Statues and Quarries of Rano Raraku in Thor Heyerdahl and Edwin N. Ferdon Jr. (eds.) 'Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific'", Volume 1, ''Archaeology of Easter Island'', Monographs of the School of American Research and The Museum of New Mexico, Number 24, Part 1, 1961, pp. 339–379. (esp. p. 346 for the description of the general statues and Fig. 91, p. 347, pp. 360–362 for the description of the kneeling statues)</ref><ref>Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. ''Easter Island. Archaeology, Ecology and Culture'', British Museum Press 1994:134–135, fig. 106</ref> Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.

Almost all (95%){{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or [[tuff]], found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels, mainly basalt ''toki'', which lie in place all over the quarry. The stone chisels were sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled. While sculpting was going on, the volcanic stone was splashed with water to soften it. While many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a [[:wikt:lineage|lineage]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}

Only a quarter of the statues were installed. Nearly half remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku, and the rest sat elsewhere, presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised on a platform is known as "Paro". It weighs {{convert|82|t|ST}} and is {{cvt|9.89|m|ftin}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eisp.org/1954/ |title=Moai Paro digital reconstruction |author=Van Tilburg, Jo Anne |date=5 May 2009 |publisher=Easter Island Statue Project (eisp.org) |access-date=12 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830195248/http://www.eisp.org/1954/ |archive-date=30 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/easter/explore/paro.html |title=Paro |website=Pbs.org |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608215146/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/easter/explore/paro.html |archive-date=8 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Several other statues of similar weight were transported to [[#Ahu (stone platforms)| ahu]] on the north and south coasts.

Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a ''[[miro manga erua]]'', a Y-shaped sledge with cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the [[Hibiscus tiliaceus|hau]] tree<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flenley |first1=J. R. |last2=King |first2=Sarah M. |title=Late Quaternary pollen records from Easter Island |journal=Nature |volume=307 |page=47 |year=1984 |doi=10.1038/307047a0 |issue=5946 |bibcode=1984Natur.307...47F |s2cid=4265688 }}</ref> and tied around the statue's neck. Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Among other researchers on moving and erecting the moai was [[Vincent Richards Lee|Vince Lee]], who reenacted a moai moving scenario. Some 50 of the statues were re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in Anakena beach in 1956.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://easterislandtraveling.com/places-to-visit/anakena/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150514215804/https://easterislandtraveling.com/places-to-visit/anakena/ |archive-date=14 May 2015 |title=Anakena beach at Easter Island |publisher=Easter Island Traveling |access-date=2 May 2015 }}</ref> It was raised using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.

Another method that might have been used to transport the moai would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward as it rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their final locations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunt |first1=Terry |last2=Lipo |first2=Carl |title=The Statues that Walked: Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island |year=2011 |publisher=Free Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NG Live!: Walking With Giants: How the Easter Island Moai Moved |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/ng-live/hunt-lipo-animation-bonus-nglive |website=video.nationalgeographic.com |access-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511140108/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/ng-live/hunt-lipo-animation-bonus-nglive |archive-date=11 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NG Live!: Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo: The Statues That Walked |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/ng-live/hunt-lipo-easter-island-lecture-nglive |website=video.nationalgeographic.com |access-date=12 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522011214/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/ng-live/hunt-lipo-easter-island-lecture-nglive |archive-date=22 May 2015 }}</ref> This might have been managed by as few as 15 people, supported by the following evidence:
* The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward, whereas the ones moved to final locations are not. This would serve to provide a better centre of gravity for transport.
* The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate more stable transport. Studies have shown fractures along the bases of the statues in transport; these could have arisen from rocking the statue back and forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found mounted on ahu do not have wide bases, and stone chips found at the sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
* The abandoned and fallen statues near the old roads are found (more often than would be expected from chance) face down on ascending grades and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were documented standing upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage that rested in the shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent with upright transport.

There is debate regarding the effects of the monument creation process on the environment. Some believe that the process of creating the moai caused widespread deforestation and ultimately a civil war over scarce resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Easter Islanders' Weapons Were Deliberately Not Lethal |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160222-easter-island-rapa-nui-collapse-archaeology-moai-mataa-warfare-weapons-Jared-Diamond/ |website=National Geographic News |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=24 February 2016 |first=Kristin |last=Romey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223101557/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/02/160222-easter-island-rapa-nui-collapse-archaeology-moai-mataa-warfare-weapons-Jared-Diamond/ |archive-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref>

In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eisp.org/3879/ |title=Easter Island Statue Project Field Season IV |publisher=Eisp.org |access-date=23 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725230401/http://www.eisp.org/3879/ |archive-date=25 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the same excavation program, some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal [[petroglyph]]s, revealed by deep excavation of the torso.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eisp.org/category/about/featured/ |title=Featured Articles Phase 2 Season 2 |author=Jo Anne Van Tilberg |website=Easter Island Statue Project |access-date=15 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717025243/http://www.eisp.org/category/about/featured/ |archive-date=17 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2020, a pickup truck crashed into and destroyed a moai statue due to brake failure. No one was injured in the incident.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Sam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/05/easter-island-anger-after-truck-crashes-into-sacred-stone-statue |title=Anger on Easter Island after truck crashes into sacred stone statue |date=6 March 2020 |work=The Guardian |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hauser |first1=Christine |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/world/americas/easter-island-statue.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306225006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/world/americas/easter-island-statue.html |archive-date=6 March 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Truck Crashes into an Easter Island Statue |date=6 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |access-date=11 March 2020 |last2=Yuhas |first2=Alan |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref>

<gallery align="center" caption="Moais" widths="180px">
File:Kneeled moai Easter Island.jpg|[[Rano Raraku#Tukuturi|Tukuturi]], an unusual bearded kneeling moai
File:Ahu-Tongariki-2013.jpg|All fifteen standing moai at [[Ahu Tongariki]], excavated and restored in the 1990s
File:Ahu-Akivi-1.JPG|[[Ahu Akivi]], one of the few inland ahu, with the only moai facing the ocean
</gallery>
<!-- Label used in other articles -->

===={{anchor|stone platforms}}Ahu (stone platforms)====
[[File:Hangaroa Moais.jpg|thumb|right|Two ahu at [[Hanga Roa]]. In foreground Ahu [[Ko Te Riku]] (with a [[pukao]] on its head). In the mid-ground is a side view of an [[#Ahu (stone platforms)| ahu]] with five moai showing retaining wall, platform, ramp and pavement. The Mataveri end of Hanga Roa is visible in the background with [[Rano Kau]] rising above it.]]

''Ahu'' are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were reworked during or after [[Moai#1722–1868 toppling of the moai|the ''huri mo'ai'' or ''statue-toppling'']] era; many became [[ossuary|ossuaries]], one was dynamited open, and [[Ahu Tongariki]] was swept inland by a [[tsunami]]. Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai{{snd}}usually just one, probably because of the shortness of the moai period and transportation difficulties. [[Ahu Tongariki]], {{cvt|1|km|mi|spell=in}} from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in total.{{sfn |Diamond |2005 |p=80}} Other notable ahu with moai are [[Ahu Akivi]], restored in 1960 by [[William Mulloy]], Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may have been made from wood and were lost.

The classic elements of ahu design are:
* A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
* A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called ''paenga''
* A fascia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms built after 1300)
* A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
* A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called ''poro''
* An alignment of stones before the ramp
* A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called ''marae''
* Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.

On top of many ahu would have been:
* Moai on squarish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
* Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
* When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The whites of the eyes were made of coral, the iris was made of obsidian or red scoria.

Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian ''[[marae]]''. In this context, ''ahu'' referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island, ahu and moai evolved to much greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The biggest ahu is {{cvt|220|m|ft}} and holds 15 statues, some of which are {{cvt|9|m|ft}} high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from broken, old moai, fragments of which have been used in the fill).<ref name="Heyerdahl 1961" /> Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so less work was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially leveling the terrain for the plaza and filling the ahu was laborious.

Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed densely and fairly evenly. The exceptions are the western slopes of Mount [[Terevaka]] and the Rano Kau and [[Poike]] headlands, where they are much sparser. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal land and, apart from Poike, the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at Rano Kau in the 1880s but had fallen to the beach before the [[Katherine Routledge|Routledge expedition]].<ref name=routledge/> At least three recorded on Poike in the 1930s have also since disappeared.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lavachery |first=Henri |title=Ile de Paques |title-link=Henri Lavachery |publisher=Bernard Grasset |year=1935 |edition=1st |location=Paris |language=french }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=SEAGER THOMAS |first=Mike |author-link=Mike Seager Thomas |date=2019 |title=New Contextual Survey on Poike, 2019 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353577661 |journal=Landscapes of Construction Interim Reports |volume=15 |page=2 }}</ref>
[[File:Rapa nui cyark 2.jpg|thumb|right|A Hare Moa, a Chicken House, image cut from a [[3D scanner|laser scan]] collected by nonprofit [[CyArk]].]]

====Stone walls====
One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the [[#Ahu (stone platforms)| ahu]] at [[Ahu Vinapu|Vinapu]]. Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to {{cvt|7000|kg|ton}} to match each other exactly, it has a superficial similarity to some [[Inca]] stone walls in South America.<ref>{{harvnb|Heyerdahl|1961}} However, [[Alfred Metraux]] pointed out that the rubble-filled Rapanui walls were a fundamentally different design to those of the Inca, as these are trapezoidal in shape as opposed to the perfectly fitted rectangular stones of the Inca. See also {{cite web |url=http://islandheritage.org/faq.html |title=this FAQ |access-date=6 September 2007 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011083729/http://islandheritage.org/faq.html |archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref>

====Stone houses====
Among the various structures, the hare paenga, hare oka, tupa, hare moa, and the distinctive stone houses of [[Orongo]] village stand out for their unique designs and functions.

The hare paenga, commonly referred to as "boat houses," were the predominant residential structures in ancient [[Rapa Nui people|Rapa Nui]]. Their design featured an elliptical foundation constructed from meticulously dressed basalt slabs, known as paenga stones, which supported a thatched roof resembling an inverted boat hull. This aerodynamic shape was particularly suited to withstand the island's strong winds. These dwellings varied in size, with some measuring up to 45 meters in length, indicating their communal use by extended families or for significant gatherings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Easter Island boat house – hare paenga |url=https://www.easterisland.travel/easter-island-facts-and-info/boat-houses/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=www.easterisland.travel}}</ref>

The hare oka were round stone structures whose specific functions remain less documented. Closely related to these were the tupa, which bore a striking resemblance in design but served a specialized purpose. Tupa were typically situated near the coastline and were inhabited by astronomer-priests who observed celestial movements, underscoring the importance of astronomy in Rapa Nui culture.<ref>Stevenson, Christopher & LADEFOGED, THEGN & HAOA, SONIA. (2007). An upland agricultural residence on Rapa Nui: Occupation of a hare oka (18–473G) in the Vaitea Region. Archaeology in Oceania. 42. 10.1002/j.1834-4453.2007.tb00018.x</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Ladefoged |first2=Thegn N. |last3=Haoa |first3=Sonia |date=2007-07-01 |title=An upland agricultural residence on Rapa Nui: occupation of a hare oka (18-473G) in the Vaitea Region. |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA166988897&issn=00038121&it=r&linkaccess=abs&p=AONE&sid=googleScholar&sw=w&v=2.1&userGroupName=anon%7Eb5c4d4e4&aty=open-web-entry |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |language=English |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=72–79|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.2007.tb00018.x }}</ref>

Integral to Rapa Nui settlements were the hare moa, oblong stone enclosures designed to house chickens. Given the value of poultry as a food source and possibly for ceremonial purposes, these structures were strategically placed within villages to facilitate monitoring and protection of the birds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Easter Island |url=https://www.rhodyman.net/Easter_Island/Easter_Island_Photo_Album.html |website=Rhodyman Net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ferdon |first=Edwin N. Jr |date=2000-01-01 |title=Stone Chicken Coops on Easter Island |url=https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/bf9936e9-ab24-4e85-98bc-a9ceef1b9eec |journal=[[University of Hawaii]] |language=en |via=}}</ref>

The ceremonial village of [[Orongo]] presents a unique architectural adaptation. Here, the traditional hare paenga design was transformed; instead of thatched roofs, the houses were constructed entirely from [[Basalt|flat basalt slabs]] sourced from the [[Rano Kau|Rano Kao]] crater. These stone houses, built around 1400, reflect a response to the village's exposure to harsh coastal weather conditions and the availability of basalt as a building material. The entrances to these dwellings were notably low, requiring individuals to crawl for entry, a feature that may have offered protection against the elements and added structural stability.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 August 2013 |title=The Ceremonial Village of Easter Island |url=https://imaginarapanui.com/en/easter-island-sightseeing/easter-island-archaeology/orongo/}}</ref>

====Petroglyphs====
Easter Island has one of the richest collections of [[petroglyph]]s in all Polynesia. Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued. Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory, or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct variations around the island in the frequency of themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include [[sea turtle]]s, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the ''[[Tangata manu]]'' or Birdman cult.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1992}}</ref>
<gallery widths="300" heights="200" align="centre" caption="Petroglyphs">
File:Makemake.jpeg|[[Makemake (mythology)|Makemake]] with two [[Tangata Manu|birdmen]], carved from red [[scoria]]
File:Ahu-Tongariki-4-Petroglyph.JPG|Fish [[petroglyph]] found near [[Ahu Tongariki]]
</gallery>

====Caves====
The island<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hangaroa.cl/en/the-easter-island-caves/ |title=The Easter Island Caves: an underground world |website=Nayara Hangaroa |access-date=22 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813003906/https://www.hangaroa.cl/en/the-easter-island-caves/ |archive-date=13 August 2021 }}</ref> and neighbouring [[Motu Nui]] are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl spaces with ambush points. Many caves feature in the myths and legends of the Rapa Nui.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/chile/activities/private-tour-easter-island-caves/a/pa-act/v-41148P7/363257 |title=Private Tour: Easter Island Caves &#124; Chile Activities |website=Lonely Planet }}</ref>

==== Stone aerophone ====
{{Main|Pu o Hiro}}
[[File:Pu o Hiro (Trumpet of Hiro) in Easter Island 2018.jpg|thumb|Pu o Hiro (Trumpet of Hiro)]]
The ''Pu o Hiro'' (''Trumpet of Hiro)'' is a {{convert|1.25|m}} high ancient stone [[aerophone]] on the north coast of Easter Island.<ref name="RapaNui"/> It was once used by the [[Rapa Nui people|Rapa Nui]] as a musical instrument in fertility rituals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://boingboing.net/2018/03/21/easter-island-musical-stone-we.html |website=boingboing.net |title=Easter Island musical stone went from priceless to worthless / Boing Boing |date=21 March 2018 |access-date=28 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322114037/https://boingboing.net/2018/03/21/easter-island-musical-stone-we.html |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/pu-o-hiro-hiros-trumpet |title=Pu o Hiro (Hiro's Trumpet) – Easter Island, Chile |website=Atlas Obscura |access-date=28 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322114036/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/pu-o-hiro-hiros-trumpet |archive-date=22 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osterinsel.de/02-trompete-pu-o-hiro.htm |title=Pu O Hiro – Die Trompete des Hiro |website=osterinsel.de |access-date=28 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102040434/http://www.osterinsel.de/02-trompete-pu-o-hiro.htm |archive-date=2 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="RapaNui"/> The stone is covered in petroglyphs called ''komari'' which represent fertility.<ref name="RapaNui"/> By skillfully blowing wind in the top hole it makes a deep, trumpeting sound to invoke the god of rain Hiro in Polynesian mythology.<ref name="RapaNui">{{cite web |date=29 October 2021 |title=Pu o Hiro, the trumpet of Hiro |url=https://imaginarapanui.com/en/easter-island-sightseeing/easter-island-archaeology/pu-o-hiro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402034320/https://imaginarapanui.com/en/easter-island-sightseeing/easter-island-archaeology/pu-o-hiro/ |archive-date=2 April 2023 |website=Imagina Rapa Nui Easter Island }}</ref>
[[File:Rongo-rongo script.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Sample of [[rongorongo]]]]