Editing Demosthenes (section)

==Assessments==
===Political career===
Plutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebutting historian [[Theopompus]], the biographer insists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to these he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose".<ref name="Pl13">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 13.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D13%3Asection%3D1 1.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520104620/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D13%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> On the other hand, [[Polybius]], a Greek historian of the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean world]], was highly critical of Demosthenes' policies. Polybius accused him of having launched unjustified verbal attacks on great men of other cities, branding them unjustly as traitors to the Greeks. The historian maintains that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "And had it not been for the King's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have gone even further, thanks to the policy of Demosthenes".<ref name="Polybius">Polybius, ''Histories'', 18, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D14 14.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130161611/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D14 |date=30 November 2011 }}</ref>
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| style="text-align: left;" |"Two characteristics, men of Athens, a citizen of a respectable character...must be able to show: when he enjoys authority, he must maintain to the end the policy whose aims are noble action and the pre-eminence of his country: and at all times and in every phase of fortune he must remain loyal. For this depends upon his own nature; while his power and his influence are determined by external causes. And in me, you will find, this loyalty has persisted unalloyed...For from the very first, I chose the straight and honest path in public life: I chose to foster the honour, the supremacy, the good name of my country, to seek to enhance them, and to stand or fall with them."
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| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''On the Crown'', 321–322)—Faced with the practical defeat of his policies, Demosthenes assessed them by the ideals they embodied rather than by their utility.
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Paparrigopoulos extols Demosthenes' patriotism, but criticises him as being short-sighted. According to this critique, Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could only survive unified under the leadership of Macedon.<ref>K. Paparregopoulus, Ab, 396–398.</ref> Therefore, Demosthenes is accused of misjudging events, opponents and opportunities and of being unable to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph.<ref name="Carey">C. Carey, ''Aeschines'', 12–14.</ref> He is criticised for having overrated Athens's capacity to revive and challenge Macedon.<ref name = "Tsatsos318-326"/> His city had lost most of its Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidated his hold over [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and was master of enormous mineral wealth. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek in [[University College London|UCL]], concludes that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist.<ref name="Carey" /> Nevertheless, the same scholar underscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. The orator asked the Athenians to choose that which is just and honourable, before their own safety and preservation.<ref name="Pl13" /> The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worth paying in the attempt to retain freedom and influence.<ref name="Carey" /> According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde, success may be a poor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by the ideals of democracy political liberty.<ref name="Pickard">A.W. Pickard, ''Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom ,'' 490.</ref> Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy, while Demosthenes longed for the city's brilliance.<ref name="Tsatsos318-326">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 318–326.</ref> He endeavoured to revive its imperilled values and, thus, he became an "educator of the people" (in the words of [[Werner Jaeger]]).<ref name="Romilly120-122">J. De Romilly, ''A Short History of Greek Literature,'' 120–122.</ref>

The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked any military skills. According to historian [[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Thomas Babington Macaulay]], in his time the division between political and military offices was beginning to be strongly marked.<ref name="Macaulay">T.B. Macaulay, ''On Mitford's History of Greece,'' 136.</ref> Almost no politician, with the exception of Phocion, was at the same time an apt orator and a competent [[strategos|general]]. Demosthenes dealt in policies and ideas, and war was not his business.<ref name="Macaulay" /> This contrast between Demosthenes' intellectual prowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigour, stamina, military skill and strategic vision is illustrated by the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue:<ref name="Pl30">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 30<br />* C.Carey, ''Aeschines'', 12–14; K. Paparregopoulus, Ab, 396–398.</ref><blockquote>Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, the Macedonian would not have conquered her.</blockquote>George Grote<ref name=":0" /> notes that already thirty years before his death, Demosthenes "took a sagacious and provident measure of the danger which threatened Grecian liberty from the energy and encroachments of Philip." Throughout his career "we trace the same combination of earnest patriotism with wise and long-sighted policy." Had his advice to the Athenians and other fellow Greeks been followed, the power of Macedonia could have been successfully checked. Moreover, says Grote, "it was not Athens only that he sought to defend against Philip, but the whole Hellenic world. In this he towers above the greatest of his predecessors."  <blockquote>The sentiments to which Demosthenes appeals throughout his numerous orations, are those of the noblest and largest patriotism; trying to inflame the ancient Grecian sentiment of an autonomous Hellenic world, as the indispensable condition of a dignified and desirable existence.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

===Oratorical skill===
[[File:Herma Demosthenes Glyptothek Munich 292.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Herma]] of Demosthenes: the head is a copy of the bronze posthumous commemorative statue in the [[Ancient Agora of Athens]] by Polyeuctus (c.&nbsp;280&nbsp;BC); this herm was found in the [[Circus of Maxentius]] in 1825 ([[Glyptothek]], Munich).]]

In Demosthenes' initial judicial orations, the influence of both [[Lysias]] and Isaeus is obvious, but his marked, original style is already revealed.<ref name="Jebb"/> Most of his extant speeches for private cases—written early in his career—show glimpses of talent: a powerful intellectual drive, masterly selection (and omission) of facts, and a confident assertion of the justice of his case, all ensuring the dominance of his viewpoint over his rival. However, at this early stage of his career, his writing was not yet remarkable for its subtlety, verbal precision and variety of effects.<ref>G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 514–515.</ref>

According to [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, Demosthenes represented the final stage in the development of Attic prose. Both Dionysius and Cicero assert that Demosthenes brought together the best features of the basic types of style; he used the middle or normal type style ordinarily and applied the archaic type and the type of plain elegance where they were fitting. In each one of the three types he was better than its special masters.<ref name="Dionysius46">Cicero, ''Orator'', [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/orator.shtml#76 76–101] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622170646/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/orator.shtml |date=22 June 2015 }}; Dionysius, ''On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes'', 46<br />* C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 39.</ref> He is, therefore, regarded as a consummate orator, adept in the techniques of oratory, which are brought together in his work.<ref name="Romilly120-122" />

According to the classical scholar Harry Thurston Peck, Demosthenes "affects no learning; he aims at no elegance; he seeks no glaring ornaments; he rarely touches the heart with a soft or melting appeal, and when he does, it is only with an effect in which a third-rate speaker would have surpassed him. He had no wit, no humour, no vivacity, in our acceptance of these terms. The secret of his power is simple, for it lies essentially in the fact that his political principles were interwoven with his very spirit."<ref name="Thurston">H. T. Peck, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DD%3Aentry+group%3D4%3Aentry%3Ddemosthenes-harpers Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520162313/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DD%3Aentry+group%3D4%3Aentry%3Ddemosthenes-harpers |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> In this judgement, Peck agrees with Jaeger, who said that the imminent political decision imbued Demosthenes' speech with a fascinating artistic power.<ref>W. Jaeger, ''Demosthenes'', 123–124.</ref> From his part, George A. Kennedy believes that his political speeches in the ekklesia were to become "the artistic exposition of reasoned views".<ref>G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 519.</ref>

Demosthenes was apt at combining abruptness with the extended period, brevity with breadth. Hence, his style harmonises with his fervent commitment.<ref name="Romilly120-122" /> His language is simple and natural, never far-fetched or artificial. According to Jebb, Demosthenes was a true artist who could make his art obey him.<ref name="Jebb" /> For his part, Aeschines stigmatised his intensity, attributing to his rival strings of absurd and incoherent images.<ref name="Ctesiphon166">Aeschines, ''Against Ctesiphon'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D139 166.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520160737/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D139 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> Dionysius stated that Demosthenes' only shortcoming is the lack of humour, although Quintilian regards this deficiency as a virtue.<ref name="Dionysius56">Dionysius, ''On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes'', 56; Quintillian, ''Institutiones'', VI, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0063%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D2 3.2.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520153432/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0063%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D2 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> In a now lost letter, Cicero, though an admirer of the Athenian orator, claimed that occasionally Demosthenes "nods", and elsewhere Cicero also argued that, although he is pre-eminent, Demosthenes sometimes fails to satisfy his ears.<ref>Cicero, ''Orator'', [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/orator.shtml#104 104] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622170646/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/orator.shtml |date=22 June 2015 }}; Plutarch, ''Cicero'', 24.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0016%3Achapter%3D24%3Asection%3D4 4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520110356/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0016%3Achapter%3D24%3Asection%3D4 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D.C. Innes, "Longinus and Caecilius", 262 (note 10).</ref> The main criticism of Demosthenes' art, however, seems to have rested chiefly on his known reluctance to speak {{Lang|la|[[ex tempore]]}};<ref name="Hermippos">J. Bollansie, ''Hermippos of Smyrna'', 415.</ref> he often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand.<ref name="Thurston" /> However, he gave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches and, therefore, his arguments were the products of careful study. He was also famous for his caustic wit.<ref name="Pl8">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D3 8.1–4.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520112028/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D3 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

Besides his style, Cicero also admired other aspects of Demosthenes' works, such as the good prose rhythm, and the way he structured and arranged the material in his orations.<ref>C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 38–40.</ref> According to the Roman statesman, Demosthenes regarded "delivery" (gestures, voice, etc.) as more important than style.<ref name="Cic38">Cicero, ''Brutus'', [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml#38 38] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629101345/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml |date=29 June 2011 }}, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml#142 142.] </ref> Although he lacked Aeschines' charming voice and Demades' skill at improvisation, he made efficient use of his body to accentuate his words.<ref>F. Nietzsche, ''Lessons of Rhetoric'', 233–235.</ref> Thus he managed to project his ideas and arguments much more forcefully. However, the use of physical gestures was not an integral or developed part of rhetorical training in his day.<ref>H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On The Crown'', 238 (note 232).</ref> Moreover, his delivery was not accepted by everybody in antiquity: [[Demetrius Phalereus]] and the comedians ridiculed Demosthenes' "theatricality", whilst Aeschines regarded Leodamas of [[Acharnae]] as superior to him.<ref name="Pl9-11">Aeschines, ''Against Ctesiphon'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0002&query=section%3D%23519 139] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502104159/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0002&query=section%3D%23519 |date=2 May 2008 }}; Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D1 9–11.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520144730/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

Demosthenes relied heavily on the different aspects of ethos, especially [[phronesis]]. When presenting himself to the Assembly, he had to depict himself as a credible and wise statesman and adviser to be persuasive. One tactic that Demosthenes used during his philippics was foresight. He pleaded with his audience to predict the potential of being defeated, and to prepare. He appealed to pathos through patriotism and introducing the atrocities that would befall Athens if it was taken over by Philip. He was a master at "self-fashioning" by referring to his previous accomplishments, and renewing his credibility. He would also slyly undermine his audience by claiming that they had been wrong not to listen before, but they could redeem themselves if they listened and acted with him presently.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mader|first1=Gottfried|title=Foresight, Hindsight, and the Rhetoric of Self-Fashioning in Demosthenes' Philippic Cycle|journal=Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric|year=2007|volume=25|issue=4|pages=339–360|doi=10.1525/rh.2007.25.4.339|s2cid=145293706 }}</ref>

Demosthenes tailored his style to be very audience-specific. He took pride in not relying on attractive words but rather simple, effective prose. He was mindful of his arrangement, he used clauses to create patterns that would make seemingly complex sentences easy for the hearer to follow. His tendency to focus on delivery promoted him to use repetition, this would ingrain the importance into the audience's minds; he also relied on speed and delay to create suspense and interest among the audience when presenting the most important aspects of his speech. One of his most effective skills was his ability to strike a balance: his works were complex so that the audience would not be offended by any elementary language, but the most important parts were clear and easily understood.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wooten|first1=Cecil|title=A Triple Division in Demosthenes|journal=Classical Philology|year=1999|volume=94|issue=4|pages=450–454|doi=10.1086/449458|s2cid=162267631}}</ref>