Editing Coptic language (section)

=== Verbs ===

==== Verbal grade system ====
Coptic, like Ancient Egyptian and Semitic languages, has root-and-pattern or templatic morphology, and the basic meaning of a verb is contained in a root and various derived forms of root are obtained by varying the vowel pattern. For example, the root for 'build' is ''kt''.  It has four derived forms:
# {{Coptic|ⲕⲟⲧ}} {{IPA|kɔt}} (the absolute state grade)
# {{Coptic|ⲕⲉⲧ-}} ket- (the nominal state grade)
# {{Coptic|ⲕⲟⲧ⸗}} kot= (the pronominal state grade)
# {{Coptic|ⲕⲉⲧ}} {{IPA|kɛt}} (the stative grade)
(The nominal state grade is also called the construct state in some grammars of Coptic.)

The absolute, nominal, and pronominal state grades are used in different syntactic contexts. The absolute state grade of a transitive verb is used before a direct object with the accusative preposition {{IPA|/ən, əm/}}, and the nominal state grade is used before a direct object with no case-marking.  The pronominal state grade is used before a pronominal direct object enclitic. In addition, many verbs also have a neutral state grade, used to express a state resulting from the action of the verb. Compare the following forms:{{sfn|Lambdin|1983|p=39}}

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
ABS:absolute state grade
NOM:nominal state grade
PRONOM:pronominal state grade
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{{fs interlinear |lang=cop |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|top='''Absolute state grade'''
|{{Coptic|ⲁⲓϫⲓⲙⲓ}} {{Coptic|ⲙ̀ⲡⲁⲓⲱⲧ}}
|Aijimi əmpaiōt
|a-i-jimi əm-p-a-iōt
|PFV-1SG-find.ABS PREP-DEF:MASC:SG-1SG-father
|'I found my father.'}}

{{fs interlinear |lang=cop |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|top='''Nominal state grade'''
|{{Coptic|ⲁⲓϫⲉⲙ}} {{Coptic|ⲡⲁⲓⲱⲧ}}
|Aijem paiōt
|a-i-jem p-a-iōt
|PFV-1SG-find.NOM DEF:MASC:SG-1SG-father
|'I found my father.'}}

{{fs interlinear |lang=cop |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|top='''Pronominal state grade'''
|{{Coptic|ⲁⲓϭⲉⲛⲧϥ}}
|Aijəntf
|a-i-jənt{{=}}f
|PFV-1SG-find.PRONOM{{=}}3MSG
|'I found him.'}}

For most transitive verbs, both absolute and nominal state grade verbs are available for non-pronominal objects. However, there is one important restriction, known as ''Jernstedt's rule'' (or the ''Stern-Jernstedt rule'') {{Harv|Jernstedt|1927}}: present-tense sentences cannot be used in the nominal state grade. Thus sentences in the present tense always show a pattern like the first example above (absolute state), never the second pattern (nominal state).

In general, the four grades of Coptic verb are not predictable from the root, and are listed in the lexicon for each verb. The following chart shows some typical patterns of correspondence:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Gloss
! colspan="2"| Absolute state
! colspan="2"| Nominal state
! colspan="2"| Pronominal state
! colspan="2"| Neutral state
|-
| Spread || {{Coptic|ⲡⲱⲣϣ̀}} || {{IPA|poːrəʃ}} || {{Coptic|ⲡⲣ̀ϣ}} || {{IPA|pərʃ}} || {{Coptic|ⲡⲱⲣϣ}} || {{IPA|poːrʃ}} || {{Coptic|ⲡⲟⲣϣ̀}} || {{IPA|poʔrəʃ}}
|-
| Dig || {{Coptic|ϣⲓⲕⲉ}} || {{IPA|ʃiːkə}} || {{Coptic|ϣⲉⲕⲧ}} || {{IPA|ʃekt}} || {{Coptic|ϣⲁⲕⲧ}} || {{IPA|ʃakt}} || {{Coptic|ϣⲟⲕⲉ}} || {{IPA|ʃoʔkə}}
|-
| Comfort || {{Coptic|ⲥⲟⲗⲥⲗ̀}} || {{IPA|solsəl}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲗ̀ⲥⲗ̀}} || {{IPA|səlsəl}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲗ̀ⲥⲱⲗ}} || {{IPA|səlsoːl}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲗ̀ⲥⲱⲗ}} || {{IPA|səlsoːl}}
|-
| Roll || {{Coptic|ⲥⲕⲟⲣⲕⲣ̀}} || {{IPA|skorkər}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲕⲣ̀ⲕⲣ̀}} || {{IPA|skərkər}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲕⲣ̀ⲕⲱⲣ}} || {{IPA|skərkoːr}} || {{Coptic|ⲥⲕⲣ̀ⲕⲱⲣ}} || {{IPA|skərkoːr}}
|-
| Build || {{Coptic|ⲕⲱⲧ}} || {{IPA|koːt}} || {{Coptic|ⲕⲉⲧ}} || {{IPA|ket}} || {{Coptic|ⲕⲟⲧ}} || {{IPA|kot}} || {{Coptic|ⲕⲏⲧ}} || {{IPA|keːt}}
|}

It is hazardous to make firm generalisations about the relationships between these grade forms, but the nominal state is usually shorter than the corresponding absolute and neutral forms. Absolute and neutral state forms are usually bisyllabic or contain a long vowel; the corresponding nominal state forms are monosyllabic or have short vowels.

==== Tense/aspect/mood inflection ====
Coptic has a very large number of distinct [[tense-aspect-mood]] categories, expressed by particles which are either before the verb or before the subject. The future {{IPA|/na/}} is a preverbal particle and follows the subject:{{sfn|Reintges|2010|p=210}}

{{fs interlinear |lang=cop |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|{{Coptic|Ⲡⲉϫⲟⲉⲓⲥ}} {{Coptic|ⲛⲁⲕⲣⲓⲛⲉ}} {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲛⲉⲗⲁⲟⲥ}}
|Pecoeis nakrine ənnelaos
|pe-joeis '''na'''-krine ən-ne-laos
|DEF:MASC:SG-lord FUT-judge PREP-DEF:PL-people
|'The lord will judge the nations.'}}

In contrast, the perfective {{IPAslink|a}} is a pre-subject particle:

{{fs interlinear |lang=cop |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|{{Coptic|Ⲁ}} {{Coptic|ⲧⲉϥⲥⲱⲛⲉ}} {{Coptic|ⲇⲉ}} {{Coptic|ⲟⲗ}} {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲛⲉϥⲕⲏⲥ}}
|A tefsōne de ol ənnefkēs
|'''a''' te-f-sōne de ol ən-ne-f-kēs
|PFV DEF:F:SG-3MSG-sister {{gcl|PART|particle}} carry.ABS PREP-DEF:PL-3MSG-bone
|'His sister carried his bones.'}}

There is some variation in the labels for the tense/aspect/mood categories. The chart below shows the labels from {{harvtxt|Reintges|2004}}, {{harvtxt|Lambdin|1983}}, {{harvtxt|Plumley|1948}}. (Where they agree, only one label is shown.) Each form lists the morphology found with a nonpronominal subject (Marked with an underscore in Coptic) and a third person singular masculine pronominal subject ('he'):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="3"| Tense name
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| Nominal subject
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| 3rd M. Sg.<br />Pronominal subject
|-
! Reintges !! Lambdin !! Plumley
|-
| First Present || || Present I || {{Coptic|_}} || NP || {{Coptic|ϥ}}- || {{IPA|f}}-
|-
| Second Present<br />Circumstantial || || || {{Coptic|ⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|ef}}-
|-
| Relative of First Present || || || {{Coptic|ⲉⲧⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|etere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲉⲧϥ̀}}- || {{IPA|etəf}}-
|-
| Preterite Present || Imperfect || Imperfect || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|nere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|nef}}-
|-
| Preterite Past || || || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉⲁ _}} || {{IPA|nea}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉⲁϥ}}- || {{IPA|neaf}}-
|-
| Future I
| || || {{Coptic|_ ⲛⲁ}}- || NP {{IPA|na}}- || {{Coptic|ϥⲛⲁ}}- || {{IPA|fna}}-
|-
| Future II
| || || {{Coptic|ⲉⲣⲉ _ ⲛⲁ}}- || {{IPA|ere}} NP {{IPA|na}}- || {{Coptic|ⲉϥⲛⲁ}}- || {{IPA|efna}}-
|-
| Future III ||
| || {{Coptic|ⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲉϥⲉ}}- || {{IPA|efe}}-
|-
| || Negative Future III || Negative Future II || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲛⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ənne}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲛⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|ənnef}}-
|-
| || Imperfect of Future ||Future Imperfect || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉⲣⲉ _ ⲛⲁ}}- || {{IPA|nere}} NP {{IPA|na}}- || {{Coptic|ⲛⲉϥⲛⲁ}}- || {{IPA|nefna}}-
|-
| Perfect I || || || {{Coptic|ⲁ _}} || {{IPA|a}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲁϥ}}- || {{IPA|af}}-
|-
| Negative Perfect I || ||  || {{Coptic|ⲙ̀ⲡⲉ _}} || {{IPA|əmpe}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲙ̀ⲡⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|əmpef}}-
|-
| Perfect II || || || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ənta}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲧⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|əntaf}}-
|-
| Habitual  ||
| || {{Coptic|ϣⲁⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ʃare}} NP || {{Coptic|ϣⲁϥ}}- || {{IPA|ʃaf}}-
|-
| Habitual I
| || || {{Coptic|ⲉϣⲁⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|eʃare}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲉϣⲁϥ}}- || {{IPA|eʃaf}}-
|-
| Negative Habitual || || || {{Coptic|ⲙⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|mere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲙⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|mef}}-
|-
| [[Jussive]] || [[Injunctive mood|Injunctive]] || [[Optative]] || {{Coptic|ⲙⲁⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|mare}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|maref}}-
|-
| Conditional || || || {{Coptic|ⲉⲣϣⲁⲛ _}} || {{IPA|erʃan}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲉϥϣⲁⲛ}}- || {{IPA|efʃan}}-
|-
| Conjunctive || || || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ənte}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛϥ̀}}- || {{IPA|nəf}}-
|-
| Inferential || Future Conjunctive of Result ||Future I || {{Coptic|ⲧⲁⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|tare}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲧⲁⲣⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|taref}}-
|-
| Temporal || || || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲣⲉ _}} || {{IPA|əntere}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲣⲉϥ}}- || {{IPA|ənteref}}-
|-
| Terminative ||"Until" || "Unfulfilled action || {{Coptic|ϣⲁⲛⲧⲉ _}} || {{IPA|ʃante}} NP || {{Coptic|ϣⲁⲛⲧϥ̀}}- || {{IPA|ʃantəf}}-
|-
| ||"Not yet" ||"Unfulfilled action || {{Coptic|ⲙ̀ⲡⲁⲧⲉ _}} || {{IPA|əmpate}} NP || {{Coptic|ⲙ̀ⲡⲁⲧϥ̀}}- || {{IPA|əmpatəf}}-
|}

An approximate range of use for most of the tense/aspect/mood categories is shown in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense name (Lambdin) !! Approximate range of use
|-
| Present I || Present time in narrative (predicate focus)
|-
| Relative of Present I || Non-subject relative clause in present tense
|-
| Circumstantial || Background clauses; relative clauses with indefinite heads
|-
| Imperfect || Action in progress in the past
|-
|  Future I || Simple future tense (predicate focus)
|-
| Future II || Simple future tense (adverbial focus)
|-
| Future III || Future tense conveyed as necessary, inevitable, or obligatory
|-
| Perfect I || Primary narrative tense (predicate focus)
|-
| Negative Perfect I  || Negative of Perfect I
|-
| Perfect II || Primary narrative tense (adverbial focus); relative clause form of Perfect I
|-
| Habitual || Characteristic or habitual action
|-
| Negative Habitual || Negative of Habitual
|-
| Injunctive || Imperative for first and third persons ('let me', 'let him', etc.)
|-
| Conditional || Protasis (if-clause) of a conditional (if-then) statement
|-
| Conjunctive || Event shares the TAM of a preceding initial verb
|-
| Future Conjunctive of Result || Used in clauses that express a resultant action
|-
| Temporal || Past action in a subordinate temporal clause ("when NP V-ed, ...")
|}

==== Second tenses ====
An unusual feature of Coptic is the extensive use of a set of "second tenses", which are required in certain syntactic contexts.  "Second tenses" are also called "relative tenses" in some work.{{sfn|Reintges|2004}}