Editing Avro Lancaster (section)

==Operational history==
===Second World War===
[[File:Avro Lancasters flying in loose formation.jpg|thumb|Lancasters of No. 50 Squadron fitted with exhaust shrouds intended to conceal exhaust flames from [[night fighter]]s]]
[[File:Avro Lancaster pigeons WWII IWM TR 193.jpg|thumb|Crewman with [[homing pigeon]]s, 1942. Pigeons were customarily carried aboard Lancasters as a means of communications in the event of a crash, ditching or radio failure.]]

During early 1942, [[No. 44 Squadron RAF|No. 44 Squadron]], based at [[RAF Waddington]], [[Lincolnshire]], became the first RAF squadron to convert to the Lancaster; it was quickly followed by [[No. 97 Squadron RAF|No. 97 Squadron]], which was also based at Waddington.<ref name="goul garb 6" /><ref name = "robertson1964 1415">Robertson 1964, pp. 14–15.</ref> On 2 March 1942, the first operational mission of the Lancaster, deploying naval mines in the vicinity of [[Heligoland Bight]], was performed by aircraft of No. 44 Sqn; a planned mission against the {{ship|German battleship|Tirpitz}} had been rescheduled due to poor weather conditions.<ref name="robertson1964 15">Robertson 1964, p. 15.</ref> On 10 March 1942, the type's first bombing mission was conducted over the German city of [[Essen]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]].<ref name="goul garb 6 7">Goulding and Garbett 1966, pp. 6–7.</ref>

All Lancasters were temporarily grounded after a crash on 20 March in [[Boston, Lincolnshire]]; this was lifted after each aircraft had been inspected for signs of buckling on the upper wing surface.<ref name="robertson1964 15"/> The first recorded casualties amongst Lancaster crews were recorded on 24 March 1942 with the loss of ''R5493'' to anti-aircraft fire over [[Lorient]].<ref name = "robertson1964 16">Robertson 1964, p. 16.</ref> Due to the high loss rates typically involved in such operations, daytime bombing missions were performed sparingly until the Allies had achieved a level of [[Air supremacy|aerial supremacy]] over the [[Axis powers]].<ref name="goul garb 7"/>

On 17 April 1942, 12 Lancasters of No. 44 and No. 99 Squadrons undertook a bombing raid on the [[MAN SE|Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg A.G., Augsburg]] engine manufacturing plant in Southern Germany; despite flying at low altitude, three bombers were shot down by Luftwaffe Bf 109s over France, and at least two more were lost to anti-aircraft fire at the factory itself. Nonetheless, the factory was successfully bombed, a feat that was personally hailed by Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] in the aftermath.<ref name = "robertson1964 1617">Robertson 1964, pp. 16–17.</ref> The attack revealed the existence of the Lancaster to both Germany and the British public alike. On 27 April, an unsuccessful small-scale attack on the ''Tirpitz'' was performed by Lancasters of both No. 44 and No. 99 Squadrons.<ref name = "robertson1964 1718">Robertson 1964, pp. 17–18.</ref>

On the night of 30/31 May 1942, the Lancaster participated in [[Bombing of Cologne in World War II|Operation Millenium]], the first 1,000 bomber raid against the German city of [[Cologne]].<ref name = "robertson1964 19"/> By this point, the number of Lancasters in operational service had surpassed those of the preceding Manchester. On 12 June, the first use of the type by [[RAF Coastal Command]], having loaned aircraft from [[RAF Bomber Command]], commenced; it was used to conduct long range anti-[[U-boat]] operations, reportedly attacking two on 15 June.<ref name = "robertson1964 1920">Robertson 1964, pp. 19–20.</ref>

Additional large-scale raids were performed against [[Emden]] between 19 and 23 June, and against [[Bremen]] between 25 and 29 June, the latter reportedly dealing considerable damage to the [[Focke-Wulf]] aircraft works.<ref name = "robertson1964 1920"/> 40 Lancasters also flew an ineffective long-range raid upon [[Danzig]], arriving after dusk and thus unable to effectively bomb its port to disrupt U-boat construction. On 31 July, 20% of Bomber Command's strength was directed against [[Düsseldorf]], focused on [[Schiess A.G.]]'s machine tool manufacturing plant.<ref name = "robertson1964 20">Robertson 1964, p. 20.</ref> The tempo of Lancaster operations rose to a new height in August 1942, major raids were flown against targets in the [[Ruhr]], [[Duisburg]], and in the [[Baltic Sea]]. An emphasis was placed upon aiding the [[Battle of the Atlantic]] by hindering the [[German Navy]]. Often, when the weather was deemed to be unsuitable for bombing missions, night-time mine-laying operations were flown instead.<ref name = "robertson1964 2021`">Robertson 1964, pp. 20–21.</ref>

A major improvement to night-time bombing came with the implementation of the [[Pathfinder (RAF)|Pathfinder Force]] (PFF) in August 1942, multiple squadrons were transferred from Bomber Command groups to constitute the new unit.{{sfn|Pitchfork|2008|p=254}} These pathfinders were tasked with flying ahead of bomber formations to locate and mark targets using [[Target indicator|Target Indicator]] flares to improve the accuracy of strikes by the following aircraft. Early PFF operations produced mixed results, but did prove decisive on 27/28 August against [[Kassel]] and the three factories of the [[Henschel]] aircraft company in the city.{{sfn|Pitchfork|2008|p=262}}<ref name="RAF">{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug42.html |title=Campaign Diary, August 1942 |work=Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary |publisher=[[Royal Air Force]] |date=6 April 2005 |access-date=23 July 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611030306/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug42.html |archive-date=11 June 2007 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> That same night, 12 Lancasters of No. 106 Squadron flew to [[Gdynia]], armed with newly developed anti-[[capital ship]] bombs, intending to hit the battleships [[German battleship Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] and ''[[German battleship Gneisenau|Gneisenau]],'' as well as the [[aircraft carrier]] [[German aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin|''Graf Zeppelin'']], but did not manage to hit any ships due to a persistent haze.<ref name = "robertson1964 21">Robertson 1964, p. 21.</ref>

While the Lancaster had been designed to conduct night-time operations, daylight raids were occasionally performed by the type as well.<ref name="goul garb 7">Goulding and Garbett 1966, p. 7.</ref> Occasionally, lone Lancasters would be dispatched to perform decoy raids on key manufacturing sites, such as munitions factories, with the intention of being spotted to cause workers to go to air raid shelters, thus disrupting production.<ref name = "robertson1964 20"/> On 17 October 1942, an audacious daytime raid was performed by 90 Lancasters of [[No. 5 Group RAF|No. 5 Group]], the bombing of the [[Schneider Kreuznach|Schneider Works]] at [[Le Creusot]], France; only a single aircraft, ''W4774'', was lost during the course of the mission.<ref name="goul garb 7"/> Losses were avoided by measures such as flying beneath German radar cover, aerial reconnaissance along the intended route, and the strict observation of secrecy.<ref name = "robertson1964 2122">Robertson 1964, pp. 21–22.</ref>

In late October 1942, the first Lancaster bombing missions over Italy were performed; on 22 and 23, the cities of [[Genoa]] and [[Turin]] were struck at night-time.<ref name = "robertson1964 22">Robertson 1964, p. 22.</ref> On 24 October, the Italian city of [[Milan]] was raided by roughly 60 Lancasters during the daytime; railway infrastructure was a priority target for these attacks. These bombers had been escorted across the Channel by Spitfires before breaking formation to individually fly at low altitude to reach and fly over the [[Alps]]; a total of three were reportedly shot down by enemy fighters.<ref name = "robertson1964 2223">Robertson 1964, pp. 22–23.</ref> During November, targets in Italy and Germany were alternatively attacked by Lancasters, striking the city of [[Osnabrück]] multiple times, conducting a heavy raid against Turin, and destroying supplies for the [[Afrika Korps]] in Genoa. Only eight bombing missions were conducted during all of December, the most prominent of which being against Duisburg, due to poor prevailing weather conditions.<ref name = "robertson1964 23">Robertson 1964, p. 23.</ref>

Throughout 1942, the Lancaster remained in relatively short supply; consequently, both training and crew conversion courses typically had to be performed by the squadrons themselves; there were no aircraft furnished with dual controls at this time, and pilots would therefore have to perform their first flight without their instructors being capable of directly acting on the controls themselves.<ref name="goul garb 7" /><ref name = "robertson1964 19">Robertson 1964, p. 19.</ref> Furthermore, each Lancaster had its own ground crew early on; centralised servicing was introduced later.<ref name = "robertson1964 59">Robertson 1964, p. 59.</ref> By the end of the year, a total of 16 operational squadrons had been stood up while around 200 Lancasters were under Bomber Command.<ref name = "robertson1964 23"/>

On 16 January 1943, the German capital city of [[Berlin]] was raided for the first time in over a year; conducted by an all-Lancaster force, the Berlin raid was fairly inconsequential beyond its psychological impact, not causing meaningful damage to either side.<ref name = "robertson1964 26">Robertson 1964, p. 26.</ref> The first [[radial engine]]d Lancasters were also introduced to service during January, alongside some new bombing aids. On 4 February, 198 Lancasters raided the city of Turin; days later, 466 Lancasters attacked Lorient, and an all-Lancaster force of 142 aircraft attacked Milan on 14 February.<ref name = "robertson1964 2627">Robertson 1964, pp. 26–27.</ref> On 28 February, 86 Lancasters attacked the occupied French city of [[Saint-Nazaire]]; the next day, 79 Lancasters bombed Berlin. On 5 March, the [[Battle of the Ruhr]] strategic bombing campaign was launched by Bomber Command. The initial attack on Essen comprised 412 bombers, 140 of which were Lancasters. In order to cope with the higher attrition rate from these operations, a three-fold increase in production was enacted.<ref name = "robertson1964 2728">Robertson 1964, pp. 27-28.</ref>

On 15 April, Stuttgart was raided by a large force of Lancasters; on the following day, [[Plzeň]] was similarly struck, although much of the intended attack upon the [[Škoda Works]] was unintentionally directed towards a large asylum instead; other targets that month included Stettin, Duisburg, and the Ruhr. The majority of strategic bombing missions flown during May were also directed towards the Ruhr region.<ref name = "robertson1964 29">Robertson 1964, p. 29.</ref>

Perhaps the most famous single mission performed by the Lancaster was flown on 16–17 May 1943, codenamed [[Operation Chastise]], to destroy the dams of the [[Ruhr Area|Ruhr Valley]].<ref name = "robertson1964 2932">Robertson 1964, pp. 29–32.</ref> The operation was carried out by [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|No. 617 Squadron]], which had been formed less than two months prior. They flew modified Lancaster Mk IIIs that were armed with special drum-shaped [[bouncing bomb]]s; these had been specially designed by the British engineer [[Barnes Wallis]]; the Lancaster was the only bomber at the time capable of bearing the weapon.<ref name = "robertson1964 30"/> A total of 19 aircraft were dispatched on the operation, setting off in the evening and flying at very low altitudes most of the way to avoid detection. Initial attacks targeted the [[Mohne Dam]] until it was breached, then moved on to the [[Eder Dam]], and then the [[Sorpe Dam]] and [[Ennepe Dam]].<ref name = "robertson1964 3132">Robertson 1964, pp. 31–32.</ref> The story of the operation was later made into [[The Dam Busters (book)|a book]], and subsequently a film, ''[[The Dam Busters (movie)|The Dam Busters]]''.<ref name = "robertson1964 30">Robertson 1964, p. 30.</ref>

The Ruhr continued to be intensely raided by Bomber Command for months following Operation Chastise with the aim of suppressing the region's industrial output.<ref name = "robertson1964 34">Robertson 1964, p. 34.</ref> In June, Lancasters begun operating in [[North Africa]] using the tactic of [[shuttle bombing]] from airfields in [[Blida]] and [[Dar El Beïda|Maison Blanche]]. This was a key element of [[Operation Bellicose]], the bombing of a German [[radar]] factory in the former [[Luftschiffbau Zeppelin|Zeppelin Works]] at [[Friedrichshafen]] and the Italian naval base at [[La Spezia]].<ref name = "robertson1964 34"/> On 12 July, an all-Lancaster force performed the biggest-yet bombing raid on Turin in support of the recently launched [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]]. Further missions across the country were flown throughout this month, often focusing on electrical and railway infrastructure.<ref name = "robertson1964 35">Robertson 1964, p. 35.</ref>

[[File:Lancaster over Hamburg.jpg|thumb|A Lancaster over Hamburg, circa 1943]]
During late July and early August 1943, large numbers of Lancasters participated in the devastating round-the-clock raids on the city of [[Hamburg]] during Air Chief Marshal Harris's [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|Operation Gomorrah]].<ref name = "robertson1964 3536">Robertson 1964, pp. 35–36.</ref> On the night of 27 July, 787 RAF aircraft, comprising 74 [[Vickers Wellington]]s, 116 [[Short Stirling]]s, 244 [[Handley Page Halifax]]es and 353 Avro Lancasters, bombed the city.{{sfn|Bahnsen|Stürmer|p=41}}<ref>{{Citation |author=RAF staff |date=6 April 2005 |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary.html |title=Bomber Command: Campaign Diary |work=RAF Bomber Command 60th Anniversary|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary.html |archive-date=6 July 2007}}</ref> An estimated 18,474 people died on this night alone, despite many of victims being within [[air raid shelter]]s and cellars, as the widespread fires across the city led to [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=334}} Altogether, 8,621 tons of bombs were dropped on Hamburg by the end of the operation.<ref name = "robertson1964 36">Robertson 1964, p. 36.</ref>

On the night of 17/18 August, [[Operation Hydra (1943)|Operation Hydra]] was conducted against the [[Peenemünde Army Research Center]], the site of the [[V-2 rocket]] and other [[List of German guided weapons of World War II|German guided missiles and munitions]]; 17 Lancasters were lost in the costly but successful attack, mainly to German night fighters.<ref name = "robertson1964 37"/><ref>Richards 2001, p. 200.</ref> Five days later, Lancasters struck numerous [[chemical works]] across Germany, including those in Leverkusen and Düsseldorf. On 23 August, a major raid on Berlin was conducted, dropping roughly 1,700 tons of bombs on the city; German night fighters responded, causing a 5.4% loss rate amongst Lancasters, while the Halifax and Stirling bombers suffered 8.8% and 12.9% loss rates respectively. Numerous strikes on the German capital occurred over the following weeks, sometimes by an all-Lancaster force.<ref name = "robertson1964 37">Robertson 1964, p. 37.</ref>

In September, Hanover was subjected to the most concentrated bombing raid of the war so far.<ref name = "robertson1964 38">Robertson 1964, p. 38.</ref> In October, the widespread bombing of numerous German cities took place, targeting Munich, Kassel, Frankfurt, Offenbach, Ludwigshafen, Stuttgart, Friedrichshafen, and Leipzig, along with other targets. By this point, the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] had stood up its own operational squadrons equipped with Lancasters, and proceeded with offensive action over Germany in this same month.<ref name = "robertson1964 3839">Robertson 1964, pp. 38–39.</ref>

In late 1943, Air Chief Marshal Harris advocated to Churchill for the persistent bombing of Berlin in preference to earlier targets such as the Ruhr.<ref name = "robertson1964 3950">Robertson 1964, pp. 39, 50.</ref> Between 15 November 1943 and 24 November 1944, sixteen major bombing operations were conducted against the German capital in the [[Battle of Berlin (RAF campaign)|Battle of Berlin]]; of the 9,111 sorties flown, 7,256 had been performed by Lancasters. These raids, while often incurring in costly losses, were typically deemed to have been 'most satisfactory' by senior officials.<ref name = "robertson1964 50">Robertson 1964, p. 50.</ref> In March 1944, the Berlin raids were somewhat lessened as a compromise, Bomber Command having been directed to destroy enemy communications and other targets around France and the [[Low Countries]] ahead of the [[Normandy landings]] on [[D-Day (military term)|D-Day]].<ref name = "robertson1964 5054">Robertson 1964, pp. 50–54.</ref>

During April 1944, key targets in France included railway hubs in Villeneuve, [[Rouen]], and [[Juvisy]].<ref name = "robertson1964 5354">Robertson 1964, pp. 53–54.</ref> Special operations were flown against specific ammunition depots, munitions factories, and coastal batteries in advance of the Allied invasion. Around this time, Lancasters would also provide direct support to the local operations of field forces.<ref name = "robertson1964 54">Robertson 1964, p. 54.</ref> By May, Bomber Command had a daily average operating strength of roughly 1,100 aircraft, 616 of which were Lancasters, 354 were Halifaxes, 72 Mosquitos, and 58 Stirlings; between 300 and 400 bombers were being deployed every night, dependent on weather conditions.<ref name = "robertson1964 63">Robertson 1964, p. 63.</ref> In May and June, extensive operations were flown against the fortifications of the [[Atlantic Wall]]. The first combat use of Barnes Wallis' {{cvt|12000|lb}} [[Tallboy (bomb)|'Tallboy' bombs]] occurred around this time.<ref name = "robertson1964 64">Robertson 1964, p. 64.</ref>{{sfn|Collier|1976|pp=68, 84}}

On 14 June, the first large-scale daylight bombing raid since 1942 was conducted using Lancasters against enemy shipping at the harbours of [[Le Havre]] and [[Boulogne]].<ref name = "robertson1964 65">Robertson 1964, p. 65.</ref> These daylight raids quickly became frequent as, due to a shortage of [[oil]], the Luftwaffe were increasingly incapable of mounting opposition; to further this difficulty for their opponent, Lancasters were directed against numerous oil installations. In conjunction, low-level nighttime bombing raids continued, but the emphasis shifted away from the strategic bombing of German industry in favour of directly attacking military concentrations, such as U-boat pens and [[V-1 flying bomb]] launch sites.<ref name = "robertson1964 6566">Robertson 1964, pp. 65–66.</ref>

During July, in the days following the Normandy landings, Lancasters heavily bombed the city of [[Caen]] repeatedly.<ref name="robertson1964 66">Robertson 1964, p. 66.</ref> On 24 August, eight Tallboys were dropped in a daylight attack on the U-boat pens at [[IJmuiden]], two direct hits were recorded. Multiple raids on V-1 launch sites and enemy shipping were also performed during August; the partially constructed battleship [[Richelieu-class battleship#Clemenceau and Gascogne|''Clemenceau'']] was one of the targets that were struck around this time.<ref name = "robertson1964 6667">Robertson 1964, pp. 66–67.</ref> September saw a heavy focus on airfields in [[Holland]], as well as repeated raids on German-held [[Le Havre]] and oil targets in the Ruhr. On 17 September, precision strikes were performed on [[Boulogne]] only 200 yards from the Allied lines.<ref name="robertson1964 66"/>

In October, Lancasters repeatedly struck the sea wall at [[Westkapelle, Netherlands|Westkapelle]], seeing to prevent the Germans from intentionally flooding neighbouring lands to delay Allied ground forces.<ref name = "robertson1964 68">Robertson 1964, p. 68.</ref> Extensive daylight raids were performed during the month; cities such as Cologne, Walcheren, and Bergen were targeted by hundreds of Lancasters. Bomber operations proceeded in both day and nighttime against industrial towns, airfields, communications, and troop concentrations into December; one such operation was flown against the [[E-boat]] pens at [[Rotterdam]] on 29 December.<ref name = "robertson1964 6970">Robertson 1964, pp. 69–70.</ref>

Throughout the latter half of 1944, a series of high-profile bombing missions were performed by the Lancaster against the {{ship|German battleship|Tirpitz}}.<ref name="goul garb 7 10">Goulding and Garbett 1966, pp. 7, 10.</ref><ref name = "robertson1964 74">Robertson 1964, p. 74.</ref> Executed by Nos. 617 and 9 Sqns, a combination of Lancaster B.I and B.III bombers were armed with Tallboy bombs and were adapted with enlarged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate their special payloads and additional fuel tanks to provide the necessary endurance. A total of three attacks, individually codenamed [[Operation Paravane]], [[Operation Obviate]] and [[Operation Catechism]], were conducted against ''Tirpitz'', which was anchored in a [[fjord]] in [[German occupation of Norway|Occupied Norway]].<ref name="goul garb 7 10" /> The first of these attacks disabled the vessel while the third mission was responsible for sinking the ship. Due to actions such as Operation Chastise and the sinking of ''Tirpitz'', [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|No. 617 Sqn]] was perhaps the most famous of all Lancaster squadrons.<ref name="goul garb 7" /><ref name = "robertson1964 7577">Robertson 1964, pp. 75–77.</ref>

On 1 January 1945, the [[Dortmund–Ems Canal]] was attacked by Lancasters, hitting it at a vulnerable section near Ladbergen.<ref name = "robertson1964 82">Robertson 1964, p. 82.</ref> An attack on [[Pforzheim]] on 23 February was described by aviation author Bruce Robertson as amongst the most concentrated and successful flown in the conflict. In the final months of the war, Lancasters were encountering the newly developed [[Messerschmitt Me 262]], the first German [[jet propulsion|jet-powered]] fighter aircraft, sometimes flying in formations of up to 40 aircraft.<ref name = "robertson1964 8384">Robertson 1964, pp. 83–84.</ref> On 4 November 1944, a Lancaster of 428 squadron was attacked by a Me 262, which was shot down by the rear gunner Ben Rakus. The pilot F.W. Walker noted that this was the first instance of a heavy bomber shooting down a jet.<ref name = "McKinstry 2009 425">McKinstry 2009, p. 425.</ref> 

During early 1945, a total of 33 Lancaster B.Is were modified so that they could deploy the {{cvt|22000|lb}} [[Grand Slam (bomb)|Grand Slam bomb]], the heaviest conventional bomb to be used during the conflict.<ref name="goul garb 10">Goulding and Garbett 1966, p. 10.</ref>{{sfn|Flower|2013|pp=355–356}} On 13 March 1945, the first operational use of the Grand Slam was performed by a Lancaster of No. 617 Sqn against the [[Hamm–Minden railway#Schildesche viaduct|Bielefeld viaduct]] in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]; this target had not yet been rendered inoperable despite being damaged by prior conventional bombing. The Tallboy strike successfully destroyed roughly 100 yards of the viaduct's length; additional viaducts, such as at Arnsberg, were promptly targeted by the squadron thereafter.<ref name = "robertson1964 84">Robertson 1964, p. 84.</ref>

By April 1945, there were in excess of 1,000 Lancasters in frontline service, dwarfing the numbers of Halifaxes and [[de Havilland Mosquito|Mosquitos]] (a [[light bomber]]) operated by Bomber Command at that time.<ref name = "robertson1964 85">Robertson 1964, p. 85.</ref> Key industrial sites, such as the [[Auguste Viktoria]] [[Benzole|benzol]] factory, were struck, while oil installations continued to be a prominent target of bombing raids in the hope of exacerbating the German fuel shortage. Amongst the final wartime operations performed by the Lancaster was the [[Bombing of Obersalzberg]], aimed at the destruction of [[Kehlsteinhaus|''Eagle's Nest'']], the extensive holiday home complex used by German leader [[Adolf Hitler]].<ref name="goul garb 10" />{{sfn|Haller|2011|p=12}} Unusually, the [[BBC]] were permitted to announce the raid before it was completed.<ref name = "robertson1964 8586">Robertson 1964, pp. 85–86.</ref>

[[File:The Royal Air Force during the Second World War CH13151.jpg|thumb|A Lancaster being fuelled from an [[AEC Matador]] truck, 1944]]

RAF Lancasters dropped food into the Holland region of the occupied Netherlands, with the acquiescence of the occupying [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|German forces]], to feed people who were in danger of starvation.<ref name="goul garb 10" /><ref name = "robertson1964 8687">Robertson 1964, pp. 86–87.</ref> The mission was named '[[Operations Manna and Chowhound|Operation Manna]]' after the food [[manna]] which is said to have miraculously appeared for the [[Israelite]]s in the [[Book of Exodus]]. The aircraft involved were from 1, 3, and 8 Groups, and consisted of 145 [[de Havilland Mosquito|Mosquitos]] and 3,156 Lancasters, flying between them a total of 3,298 [[sortie]]s. The first of the two RAF Lancasters chosen for the test flight was nicknamed "[[Bad Penny (aircraft)|Bad Penny]]" from the old expression: "a bad penny always turns up." This bomber, with a crew of seven men (five Canadians including pilot Robert Upcott of [[Windsor, Ontario]]), took off in bad weather on the morning of 29 April 1945 without a ceasefire agreement from the German forces, and successfully dropped its cargo.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

====Assessment====
The Lancaster conducted a total of 156,000 sorties and dropped {{cvt|608612|LT|kg}} of [[bomb]]s between 1942 and 1945. Only 35 Lancasters completed more than 100 successful operations each, and 3,249 were lost in action. The most successful survivor completed 139 operations and was ultimately retired from service and scrapped in 1947. From 1942 onwards, the Lancaster became the mainstay of the British heavy bomber fleet; by the end of the war in Europe, there were roughly 50 squadrons equipped with the Lancaster, the majority of these being the Lancaster B.I model.<ref name="goul garb 7" /> From its entry into service, the original model of the Lancaster was operated in almost every major bombing raid of the European conflict.<ref name="goul garb 11" />

[[Adolf Galland]] (commander of the Luftwaffe fighters) considered the Lancaster to be "the best night bomber of the war",<ref>Galland 2005, p. 119.</ref> as did his adversary, [[Arthur Harris|Arthur "Bomber" Harris]], who referred to it as Bomber Command's "shining sword".<ref>Iveson 2009, p. 82.</ref> Goulding and Garbett wrote that: "The achievements of the Lancaster and the men who flew it have been widely acclaimed, and the aircraft has been described as the greatest single factor in winning WWII, an exaggeration but a pardonable one".<ref name="goul garb 6"/>

Lancasters from Bomber Command were to have formed the main strength of [[Tiger Force (air)|Tiger Force]], the Commonwealth bomber contingent scheduled to take part in [[Operation Downfall]], the codename for the planned invasion of Japan in late 1945.<ref name="goul garb 11"/> Aircraft allocated to the Tiger Force were painted in white with black undersides and outfitted with additional radio units and navigational aids to facilitate their use in the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Pacific theatre]]. The addition of large saddle-type external fuel tanks was considered and trialled in Australia and India, but this was discontinued due to their perceived vulnerability to attack.<ref name="goul garb 11 12">Goulding and Garbett 1966, pp. 11–12.</ref> Together with the new [[Avro Lincoln]] and Liberators, the bombers would have operated from bases on [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]; the envisioned invasion did not happen when such action was made unnecessary by the [[surrender of Japan]].<ref name="goul garb 11"/>

While the Lancaster was briefly considered for carrying the atomic bomb as being one of the two Allied bombers capable of carrying the atomic bomb internally, after the [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress]] began to be modified in November 1943  for carrying the new bombs,  the suggestion for using the Lancaster never came up again.<ref>"Lancaster: The Second World War's Greatest Bomber", Leo McKinstry p. 495</ref>  Using the Lancaster would have required less modification to the aircraft itself, but would have necessitated additional crew training for the USAAF crews. In addition, the Lancaster had  a lower ceiling and flew slower so was at risk of the bomb blast. It also had a shorter range. "The B-29 was, therefore, deemed the better bet if it could be modified in time.".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/first-atomic-bombs-black-lancasters | title=Black Lancasters: The story of heavy British bomber and first atomic bombs | date=22 February 2023 }}</ref>  [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Leslie Groves]], the director of the [[Manhattan Project]], and [[General (United States)|General]] [[Henry H. Arnold]], the Chief of [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF), wished to use an American plane if this was at all possible. "Because the use of a British plane would have caused us many difficulties and delays"<ref>{{cite book |last=Groves |first=Leslie |author-link=Leslie Groves |title=Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1962 |isbn=0-306-70738-1 |oclc=537684 |pages=254–255}}</ref>

As a byproduct of its sound design and operational success, various developments and derivatives of the Lancaster were produced for both military and civilian purposes. One of these was the [[Avro Lincoln]] bomber, initially designated Lancaster IV and Lancaster V which became the Lincoln B.1 and B.2 respectively. A civilian airliner was converted from the Lancaster with the addition of nose and tail fairings and seats, as the [[Avro Lancastrian|Lancastrian]] and a similar aircraft was derived from the Lincoln as the [[Avro Lincolnian|Lincolnian]]. Other developments included the [[Avro York|York]], a transport with a much larger square section fuselage, and via the Lincoln, the [[Avro Shackleton|Shackleton]] maritime patrol aircraft which continued in RAF service in that role until replaced by the [[Hawker Siddeley Nimrod]] in the early 1970s, but saw further service as an [[airborne early warning]] (AEW) system until finally retired in 1991. The [[Avro Tudor|Tudor]] airliner also used the Lincoln wings, but with a new tubular fuselage.

===After the war===
====Royal Air Force====
The Lancaster remained in use for several years after the end of the war, during which a number of high-profile operations were conducted.<ref name="goul garb 12"/>

During the summer of 1946, [[No. 35 Squadron RAF|No. 35 Squadron]] Lancasters toured the United States and were [[autograph]]ed by various American movie stars, and retained these until their retirements.<ref name="goul garb 12"/> A pair of Lancasters, ''PD328'' and ''PB873'', performed several long-distance flights, including round-the-world and trans-polar trips.<ref name="goul garb 12">Goulding and Garbett 1966, p. 12.</ref>

The Lancaster remained at the forefront of RAF Bomber Command while the Lancaster B.I was gradually replaced by the improved Lancaster B.I (F/E) and B.VII (F/E) models.<ref name="goul garb 11"/> During 1947–1948, [[No. 82 Squadron RAF|No. 82 Squadron]] received new PR.1 dedicated photo-reconnaissance model derived from the Lancaster B.1 which was painted silver and lacked defensive turrets. These carried out aerial surveys of Central and [[East Africa]] and at least one was operated by the [[Ministry of Aviation]].<ref name="goul garb 12" /> [[RAF Coastal Command]] received a small number of grey-painted Lancaster MR.1s, which were normally based at [[RAF Kinloss]], [[Moray Firth]].<ref name="goul garb 12" />

The Lancaster continued to be operated in significant numbers until the introduction of the [[Avro Lincoln]], a development of the Lancaster. The Lincoln was not available in quantity for several years following the end of the conflict,<ref name = "mat kit gra 59 60">Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, pp. 59–60.</ref> and it took until December 1953 for the final Bomber Command Lancaster to be retired.<ref name="goul garb 11"/> The last Lancaster in active service with the RAF, a reconnaissance aircraft, is believed to have been retired in late 1954.<ref name="goul garb 12 13">Goulding and Garbett 1966, pp. 12–13.</ref>

====French Aéronavale====
Avro overhauled 59 Lancaster B.Is and B.VIIs at Woodford and Langar which were delivered to the French ''[[Aéronavale]]'' during 1952/53,<ref name="goul garb 14">Goulding and Garbett 1966, p. 14.</ref> which were flown until the mid-1960s by four squadrons stationed in France and [[New Caledonia]] in the maritime reconnaissance and search-and-rescue roles.<ref>Jackson 1990, p. 365.</ref>

====Argentine Air Force====
Between 1948 and 1949, 15 former RAF Lancasters were overhauled at Langar for use by the [[Argentine Air Force]].<ref name="goul garb 14"/> During its Argentine service, Lancasters were used offensively in suppressing and supporting military [[coup d'état|coups]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mantelli, Brown, Kittel, Graft |title=Avro Lancaster-Handley Page Halifax-Short S.29 Stirling |date=2017 |publisher=Edizioni R.E.I |location=Italy |isbn=978-2-37297-333-5 |page=60 |edition=first |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EuFKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60}}</ref>

====Royal Canadian Air Force====
[[File:Lancaster10MP 405Sqn RCAF NAS Jax Feb1953.jpg|thumb|RCAF 405 Squadron Lancaster 10MP Maritime Patrol aircraft in February 1953]]
Beginning in 1946, Lancaster Mk Xs were modified for service with the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (RCAF). Fourteen were modified to perform aerial and photo-reconnaissance missions; these would go on to perform much of the mapping of northern Canada until as late as 1962. Throughout the 1950s, the RCAF operated seventy modified Lancasters, designated ''Lancaster 10MR/MPs'', as Maritime Reconnaissance and Patrol aircraft in an anti-submarine role. Modifications involved the installation of radar and sonobuoy operators' positions, removal of the rear and mid-upper gun turrets, installation of a 400-gallon fuel tank in the bomb bay to increase the patrol range, upgraded electronics, radar, and instrumentation, and a cooking stove in the centre section.<ref>[http://www.aviation.technomuses.ca/collections/artifacts/aircraft/AvroLancasterX/ "Lancaster X."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830103603/http://www.aviation.technomuses.ca/collections/artifacts/aircraft/AvroLancasterX/ |date=30 August 2011}} ''Canadian Aviation and Space Museum.'' Retrieved 3 October 2011.</ref> They served throughout the 1950s, when they were supplemented by the [[Lockheed Neptune]] and finally replaced by the [[Canadair Argus]].<ref name="Bomber Command Museum">[http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/lanccanadian.html "The Canadian Lancasters."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030014404/http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/lanccanadian.html |date=30 October 2016}} ''Bomber Command Museum.'' Retrieved 3 October 2011.</ref>

====Transport====
Immediately following the end of hostilities, the Lancaster was used without any major modifications as a transport aircraft, being used to ferry thousands of [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] (POWs) back to the British Isles from across the continent.<ref name="goul garb 10 11">Goulding and Garbett 1966, pp. 10–11.</ref> Repatriation flights returning POWs and ordinary troops continued until November 1945.<ref name="goul garb 11">Goulding and Garbett 1966, p. 11.</ref>

Civil conversions of the type continued during the initial postwar years. In 1946, four Lancasters were converted by Avro at [[Bracebridge Heath]], [[Lincolnshire]] as freighters for use by [[British South American Airways]], but proved to be uneconomical, and were withdrawn after a year in service. In addition, four Lancaster IIIs were converted by [[Cobham plc|Flight Refuelling Limited]] as two pairs of tanker and receiver aircraft for the development of [[Aerial refueling|in-flight refuelling]]. In 1947, one aircraft was flown non-stop {{cvt|3459|mi}} from London to Bermuda. Later on, these two tanker aircraft were joined by another converted Lancaster; these saw use during the [[Berlin Airlift]], achieving 757 tanker sorties.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

From 1943 to 1947, the Canadian Government Trans-Atlantic Air Service (CGTAS) provided a trans-Atlantic military passenger and postal delivery service using a modified long-distance transport version of the Lancaster Mark X. Nine of these aircraft were produced, referred to as Lancaster XPPs (for Lancaster Mk.X Passenger Planes), and each was equipped with rudimentary passenger facilities. The inaugural flight from Dorval (Montreal) to Prestwick, Scotland on 22 July 1943, was completed non-stop in a record 12:26 hours; the average crossing time was about 13:25 hours. By the end of the war, these aircraft had completed hundreds of trips across the Atlantic. CGTAS ushered in the era of commercial air travel across the North Atlantic, and in 1947 the service became part of [[Trans-Canada Air Lines]], which carried paying civilian passengers in the Lancaster XPPs until they were replaced by [[Douglas DC-4]]s in 1947.<ref name="Bomber Command Museum"/><ref>[http://www.cahf.ca/members/T_members.php "Members' Profiles."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813085734/http://www.cahf.ca/members/T_members.php |date=13 August 2011}} ''Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame.'' Retrieved 3 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/lancafterwar.html "Lancasters After The War."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826121947/http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/lancafterwar.html |date=26 August 2011}} ''Bomber Command Museum.'' Retrieved 3 October 2011.</ref>