Editing Assyria (section)

== Culture ==

=== Languages ===

==== Akkadian ====
{{main|Akkadian language}}
[[File:Cuneiform tablet- caravan account MET DP-13441-005.jpg|thumb|An [[Old Assyrian period|Old Assyrian]] [[cuneiform]] tablet, containing an account of a caravan journey]]
The ancient Assyrians primarily spoke and wrote the Assyrian language, a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] (i.e. related to modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic]]) closely related to [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]], spoken in southern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}} Both Assyrian and Babylonian are generally regarded by modern scholars to be dialects of the Akkadian language.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=39}}{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}}{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=54}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=313}} This is a modern convention since contemporary ancient authors considered Assyrian and Babylonian to be two separate languages.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=313}} Only Babylonian was referred to as ''akkadûm'', with Assyrian being referred to as ''aššurû'' or ''aššurāyu''.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} Though both were written with cuneiform script, the signs look quite different and can be distinguished relatively easily.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}}

Given the vast timespan covered by ancient Assyria, the Assyrian language developed and evolved over time. Modern scholars broadly categorize it into three different periods, roughly (though far from precisely) corresponding to the periods used to divide Assyrian history: the Old Assyrian language (2000–1500&nbsp;BC), Middle Assyrian language (1500–1000&nbsp;BC) and Neo-Assyrian language (1000–500&nbsp;BC).{{Sfn|Deutscher|2009|p=20}} Because the record of Assyrian tablets and documents is still somewhat spotty, many of the stages of the language remain poorly known and documented.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}}

The signs used in Old Assyrian texts are for the most part less complex than those used during the succeeding Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods and they were fewer in number, amounting to no more than 150–200 unique signs,{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=100}} most of which were syllabic signs (representing syllables).{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} Due to the limited number of signs used, Old Assyrian is relatively easier to decipher for modern researchers than later forms of the language, though the limited number of signs also means that there are in cases several possible alternative phonetic values and readings.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}}{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} This means that while it is easy to decipher the signs, many researchers remain uncomfortable with the language itself.{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} Though it was a more archaic variant of the later Assyrian language,{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} Old Assyrian also contains several words that are not attested in later periods, some being peculiar early forms of words and others being names for commercial terms or various textile and food products from Anatolia.{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=112}}

In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian empires, the later versions of the Assyrian language were not the only versions of Akkadian used. Though Assyrian was typically used in letters, legal documents, administrative documents,{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} and as a vernacular,{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}} Standard Babylonian was also used in an official capacity.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=316}} Standard Babylonian was a highly codified version of ancient Babylonian, as used around 1500 BC, and was used as a language of high culture, for nearly all scholarly documents, literature, poetry{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=162}} and royal inscriptions.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} The culture of the Assyrian elite was strongly influenced by Babylonia in the south; in a vein similar to how [[Ancient Greece|Greek civilization]] was respected in, and influenced, [[ancient Rome]], the Assyrians had much respect for Babylon and its ancient culture.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}

Because of the multilingual nature of the vast empire, many loan words are attested as entering the Assyrian language during the Neo-Assyrian period.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=321}} The number of surviving documents written in cuneiform grow considerably fewer in the late reign of Ashurbanipal, which suggests that the language was declining since it is probably attributable to an increased use of Aramaic, often written on perishable materials such as leather scrolls or papyrus.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}} The ancient Assyrian language did not disappear completely until around the end of the 6th century BC, well into the subsequent post-imperial period.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}}

==== Aramaic and other languages ====
[[File:Syriac papyri.jpg|thumb|A 9th-century AD piece of [[papyrus]], with [[Syriac language]] writing]]
Because the Assyrians never imposed their language on foreign peoples whose lands they conquered outside of the Assyrian heartland, there were no mechanisms in place to stop the spread of languages other than Akkadian. Beginning with the migrations of Arameans into Assyrian territory during the Middle Assyrian period, this lack of linguistic policies facilitated the spread of the Aramaic language.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}} As the most widely spoken and mutually understandable of the Semitic languages (the language group containing many of the languages spoken through the empire),{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=147}} Aramaic grew in importance throughout the Neo-Assyrian period and increasingly replaced the Neo-Assyrian language even within the Assyrian heartland itself.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=180}} From the 9th century BC onward, Aramaic became the ''[[de facto]]'' lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with Neo-Assyrian and other forms of Akkadian becoming relegated to a language of the political elite.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}}

From the time of Shalmaneser III, in the 9th century BC, Aramaic was used in state-related contexts alongside Akkadian and by the time of Tiglath-Pileser III, the kings employed both Akkadian and Aramaic-language royal scribes, confirming the rise of Aramaic to a position of an official language used by the imperial administration.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=319}} During the time after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the old Assyrian language was completely abandoned in Mesopotamia in favor of Aramaic.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} By 500 BC, Akkadian was probably no longer a spoken language.{{Sfn|Deutscher|2009|p=20}}

Modern Assyrian people refer to their language as "[[Suret language|Assyrian]]" (''Sūrayt'' or ''Sūreth'').{{sfn|Donabed|2019|p=117}} Though it has little in common with the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language,{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} it is a modern version of the ancient Mesopotamian Aramaic. The language retains some influence of ancient Akkadian,{{sfn|Donabed|2019|pp=117–118}} particularly in the form of loanwords.{{sfn|Kaufman|1974|p=164}} Modern Assyrian varieties of Aramaic are often referred to by scholars as [[Neo-Aramaic]] or Neo-Syriac. As a [[liturgical language]], many Assyrians also speak [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a codified version of classical Aramaic as spoken at Edessa during the Christianization of Assyria.{{sfn|Donabed|2019|pp=117–118}}

Another language sometimes used in ancient Assyria as a language of scholarship and culture, though only in written form, was the ancient [[Sumerian language]].{{Sfn|Wagensonner|2018|p=228}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=321}} At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, various other local languages were also spoken within the imperial borders, though none achieved the same level of official recognition as Aramaic.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=147}}

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Mesopotamia}}
[[File:Artist’s impression of Assyrian palaces from The Monuments of Nineveh by Sir Austen Henry Layard, 1853.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A 19th-century reconstruction of [[Nineveh]], the Assyrian capital 705–612 BC]]
There are three surviving forms of primary evidence for the architecture of ancient Assyria. The most important form is the surviving buildings themselves, found through archaeological excavations, but important evidence can also be gathered from both contemporary documentation, such as letters and administrative documents that describe buildings that might not have been preserved, as well as documentation by later kings concerning the building works of previous kings. Assyrian buildings and construction works were almost always constructed out of [[mudbrick]]. [[Limestone]] was also used, though primarily only in works such as aqueducts and river walls, exposed to running water, and defensive fortifications.{{Sfn|Russell|2017a|pp=423–424}}

In order to support large buildings, they were often built on top of foundation platforms or on mud brick foundations. Floors were typically made of [[rammed earth]], covered in important rooms with carpets or [[Reed mat (craft)|reed mats]]. Floors in locations that were exposed to the elements, such as outside on terraces or in courtyards, were paved with stone slabs or backed bricks. Roofs, particularly in larger rooms, were supported through the use of wooden beams.{{Sfn|Russell|2017a|pp=423–424}}

The ancient Assyrians accomplished several technologically complex construction projects, including constructions of whole new capital cities, which indicates sophisticated technical knowledge.{{Sfn|Bagg|2017|p=511}} Though in large part following previous Mesopotamian architecture, there are several characteristic features of ancient Assyrian architecture. Some examples of features of ancient Assyrian architecture include stepped [[merlon]]s,{{Sfn|Albenda|2018|p=110}} vaulted roofs,{{Sfn|Kletter|Zwickel|2006|p=154}} and palaces to a large degree often being made up of sets of self-contained suites.{{Sfn|Kertai|2019|p=44}}

=== Art ===
{{Main|Art of Mesopotamia}}
[[File:Ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian costumes and decorations (1920) (14741970056).jpg|thumb|A 20th-century illustration of decorative patterns found in ancient Assyrian reliefs and garments]]
A relatively large number of statues and figurines have been recovered from the ruins of temples in Assur dating to the Early Assyrian period. Most of the surviving artwork from this time was clearly influenced by the artwork of foreign powers. For instance, a set of 87 [[alabaster]] figures of male and female worshippers from Assur before the rise of the Akkadian Empire greatly resembles [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] Sumerian figures.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}}{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=453}} Because of variation in artwork elsewhere, the artwork of early Assur was also highly variable depending on the time period, ranging from highly stylized to highly naturalistic.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=454}}

Among the most unique finds from the Early period is the head of a woman of which her eyes, eyebrows, and elaborate hair covering were originally [[Inlay|inlaid]]. This head is typical of the art style of the Akkadian period, with an overall naturalistic style, smooth and soft curves and a full mouth.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}}{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=455}} Another unique art piece from the early period is an [[ivory]] figurine of a nude woman, and fragments of at least five additional similar figurines. The ivory used might have come from [[Indian elephant]]s, which would indicate trade between early Assur and the early tribes and states of Iran.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}} Among other artwork known from the early period are a handful of large stone statues of rulers (governors and foreign kings),{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=455}} figures of animals, and stone statues of naked women.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=32}}

The artwork known from the Old Assyrian period, other than a few objects such as a partial stone statue perhaps depicting Erishum I, is largely limited to seals and impressions of seals on cuneiform documents.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=458}} Royal seals from the Puzur-Ashur dynasty of kings, prior to the rise of Shamshi-Adad I, are very similar to the seals of the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur.{{sfn|Eppihimer|2013|p=37}} In the Middle Assyrian period, from Ashur-uballit I onward, seals looked quite different and appear to emphasize royal power, rather than the theological and cosmic sources of the king's right to rule. Among non-royal seals of the Middle Assyrian period a wide assortment of different motifs are known, including both religious scenes and peaceful scenes of animals and trees. From the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I onward, seals also sometimes featured contests and struggles between humans, various animals, and mythological creatures.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=463–465}}

Several other new artistic innovations were also made in the Middle Assyrian period. In the temple dedicated to [[Ishtar]] in Assur, four cult pedestals (or "altars") from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I have been discovered. These altars were decorated with various motifs, common inclusions being the king (sometimes multiple times) and protective divine figures and standards. One of the pedestals preserves along the lower step of its base a relief image which is the earliest known narrative image in Assyrian art history. This relief, which is not very well-preserved, appears to depict rows of prisoners before the Assyrian king.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=465–469}}

The earliest known Assyrian wall paintings are also from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, from his palace in Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Motifs included plant-based patterns (rosettes and palmettes), trees and bird-headed genies. The colors used to paint the walls included black, red, blue, and white. An unusual limestone statue of a nude woman is known from Nineveh from the time of  [[Ashur-bel-kala]] ({{reign}}1074–1056&nbsp;BC). An entirely new type of monument introduced in the 11th century BC were [[obelisk]]s; four-sided stone stelae decorated all around with both images and text. Obelisks saw continued use until at least the 9th century BC.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=465–469}}

Compared to other periods, a larger amount of artwork survives from the Neo-Assyrian period, particularly monumental art made under the patronage of the kings. The most well-known form of Neo-Assyrian monumental art are wall reliefs, carved stone artwork that lined the internal and external walls of temples and palaces. Another well-known form of Neo-Assyrian art are colossi, often human-headed lions or bulls (''[[lamassu]]''), that were placed at the gates of temples, palaces and cities. The earliest known examples of both wall reliefs and colossi are from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, who might have been inspired by the Hittite monumental art that he saw on his campaigns to the Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=471–472}}

Wall paintings such as those made under Tukulti-Ninurta I in the Middle Assyrian period also continued to be used, sometimes to supplement wall reliefs and sometimes instead of them. Interior walls could be decorated by covering the mudbrick used in construction with painted mud plaster and exterior walls were at times decorated with glazed and painted tiles or bricks.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=471–472}} The most extensive known surviving sets of wall reliefs are from the reign of Sennacherib.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=487}} In terms of Neo-Assyrian artwork, modern scholars have paid particular attention to the reliefs produced under Ashurbanipal, which have been described as possessing a distinct "epic quality" unlike the art under his predecessors.{{Sfn|Encyclopaedia Britannica|p=}}

<gallery widths="170" heights="170">
File:Statue of a praying woman from the Archaic Ishtar Temple of Assur, Iraq. 2400 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|A statue of a praying woman, 25th century BC
File:Cult wall relief from Assur. A deity, probably god Assur, is flanked by 2 water deities and 2 goats. 2000-1500 BCE. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.jpg|A wall relief probably depicting [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], 21st–16th century BC
File:Middle Assyrian winged horse cylinder seal.png|A cylinder seal and impression, 14th–13th century BC
File:Temple altar offered by Tukulti-Ninurta I. 1243-1207 BCE. From Assur, Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg|Temple altar of [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]], 13th century BC
File:The only known Assyrian statue of a naked woman, erected at the temple of Ishtar in Nineveh, during the reign of Ashur-bel-kala, 1073-1056 BCE. Currently housed in the British Museum, London.jpg|A statue of a nude woman, 11th century BC
File:2018 Ashurbanipal - Tile.jpg|A glazed tile depicting a king and attendants, 9th century BC
File:The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 9th century BC, from Nimrud, Iraq. The British Museum.jpg|The [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III]], 9th century BC
File:Shalmaneser III statue from Nimrud, Iraq. 9th century BCE. Iraq Museum in Baghdad.jpg|A statue of [[Shalmaneser III]], 9th century BC
File:Openwork furniture plaque with a grazing oryx in a forest of fronds MET DP110622.jpg|Furniture ornament, 9th–8th century BC
File:Neo-Assyrian, Nimrud, Queens’ Tombs, Tomb III, Golden Crown.png|A crown of Queen [[Hama (queen)|Hama]], 8th century BC
File:LammasuChicago.jpg|A giant ''[[lamassu]]'', 8th century BC
File:Exhibition I am Ashurbanipal king of the world, king of Assyria, British Museum (45972455081).jpg|A portion of the [[Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal]], 7th century BC
File:Head of a male figure Assyrian ca. 8th–7th century BCE.jpg|The ivory tusks that provided the raw material for these objects were almost certainly from African elephants, imported from lands south of Egypt, although elephants inhabited several river valleys in Syria until they were hunted to extinction by the end of the eighth century B.C. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
</gallery>

=== Scholarship and literature ===
[[File:Library of Ashurbanipal The Flood Tablet.jpg|thumb|A tablet from the [[Library of Ashurbanipal]], containing a portion of the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'']]

Ancient Assyrian literature drew heavily on Babylonian literary traditions. Both the Old and Middle Assyrian periods are limited in terms of surviving literary texts. The most important surviving Old Assyrian literary work is ''[[Sargon, Lord of Lies]]'', a text found in a well-preserved version on a cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. Once thought to have been a parody, the tale is a [[first-person narrative]] of the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]], the founder of the Akkadian Empire. The text follows Sargon as he gains strength from the god [[Adad]], swears by Ishtar, the "lady of combat", and speaks with the gods. Surviving Middle Assyrian literature is only slightly more diverse.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=|pp=359–360}}

A distinct Assyrian scholarship tradition, though still drawing on Babylonian tradition, is conventionally placed as beginning around the time of the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. The rising status of scholarship at this time might be connected to the kings beginning to regard amassing knowledge as a way to strengthen their power.{{Sfn|Heeßel|2017|p=368}} Known Middle Assyrian works include the ''[[Tukulti-Ninurta Epic]]'' (a narrative of the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I and his exploits), fragments of other royal epics, ''[[The Hunter (Assyrian poem)|The Hunter]]'' (a short martial poem) and some royal hymns.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=|pp=359–360}}

The clear majority of surviving ancient Assyrian literature is from the Neo-Assyrian period.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=359}} The kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to see preserving knowledge as one of their responsibilities, and not, as previous kings had, a responsibility of private individuals and temples.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|p=378}} This development might have originated with the kings no longer viewing the [[divination]] performed by their diviners as enough and wished to have access to the relevant texts themselves.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|p=379}} The office of chief scholar is first attested in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta II.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=169}}

Most of the surviving ancient Assyrian literature comes from the Neo-Assyrian [[Library of Ashurbanipal]],{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=359}} which included more than 30,000 documents.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|pp=383–385}} Libraries were built in the Neo-Assyrian period to preserve knowledge of the past and maintain scribal culture. Neo-Assyrian texts fall into a wide array of genres, including divinatory texts, divination reports, treatments for the sick (either medical or magical), ritual texts, incantations, prayers and hymns, school texts and literary texts.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|pp=379–380}} An innovation of the Neo-Assyrian period were the [[annals]], a genre of texts recording the events of the reigns of a king, particularly military exploits. Annals were disseminated throughout the empire and probably served propagandistic purposes, supporting the legitimacy of the king's rule.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=365–367}}

Various purely literary works, previously aligned by scholars with propaganda, are known from the Neo-Assyrian period. Such works include, among others, the ''[[Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Crown Prince]]'', the ''[[Sin of Sargon]]'' and the ''[[Marduk Ordeal]]''.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=364}} In addition to their own works, the Assyrians copied and preserved earlier Mesopotamian literature. The inclusion of texts such as the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the ''[[Enûma Eliš]]'' (the Babylonian creation myth), ''[[Erra (god)|Erra]]'', the ''[[Etana|Myth of Etana]]'' and the ''[[Anzû|Epic of Anzu]]'' in the Library of Ashurbanipal is the primary reason for how such texts have survived to the present day.{{Sfn|Encyclopaedia Britannica|p=}}