Editing Anatomy (section)

=== Ancient ===
[[File:Foetal positions in uterus, pregnant female Wellcome L0000845.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Image of early rendition of anatomy findings]]

In 1600 BCE, the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], an [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Ancient Egyptian]] [[Medical manual|medical text]], described the [[heart]] and its vessels, as well as the brain and its [[meninges]] and [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and the [[liver]], [[spleen]], [[kidneys]], [[uterus]] and [[bladder]]. It showed the [[blood vessel]]s diverging from the heart.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=F. Clifford |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fkRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=Neurology and Trauma |date=2006-03-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-517032-0 |editor-last=Evans |editor-first=Randolph W. |language=en |chapter=The History of Cerebral Trauma |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fkRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atta |first=Hussein M. |date=December 1999 |title=Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: The Oldest Known Surgical Treatise |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000313489906501222 |journal=The American Surgeon |language=en |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=1190–1192 |doi=10.1177/000313489906501222 |pmid=10597074 |s2cid=30179363 |issn=0003-1348 |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307133230/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000313489906501222 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boehm |first1=Thomas |last2=Bleul |first2=Conrad C. |date=February 2007 |title=The evolutionary history of lymphoid organs |url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ni1435 |journal=Nature Immunology |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=131–135 |doi=10.1038/ni1435 |pmid=17242686 |s2cid=45581056 |issn=1529-2908 |quote=Important landmark discoveries included the first description of the spleen found in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, containing medical information from Egypt dating back as early as 3000 BC... |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307140612/https://www.nature.com/articles/ni1435 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ebers Papyrus]] ({{circa|1550 BCE}}) features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first =  R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | isbn = 978-0-00-215173-3 | pages=49–50}}</ref>

Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system.

The [[Hellenistic Egypt]]ian city of [[Alexandria]] was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements.<ref name=Longrigg>{{cite journal|last1=Longrigg|first1=James|title=Anatomy in Alexandria in the Third Century B.C|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|date=December 1988|volume=21|issue=4|pages=455–488|jstor=4026964|doi=10.1017/s000708740002536x|pmid=11621690|s2cid=37575399}}</ref>

[[File:The Blue Beryl-Anatomy.jpg|thumb|An anatomy [[thangka]], part of [[Desi Sangye Gyatso]]'s The Blue Beryl, 17th century]]

Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.<ref name=Longrigg /> Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]]. These two physicians helped pioneer human [[dissection]] for medical research, using the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections.<ref name = bay>{{cite journal |last1= Bay|first1=Noel Si Yang|last2=Bay|first2=Boon-Huat|title=Greek Anatomists Herophilus: The Father of Anatomy|journal=Anatomy and Cell Biology|date=2010|volume= 43 |issue= 3|pages=280–283|doi=10.5115/acb.2010.43.4.280|pmc=3026179|pmid=21267401}}</ref> Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Von Staden|first1=H|title=The Discovery of the Body: Human Dissection and Its Cultural Contexts in Ancient Greece|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|date=1992|volume=65|issue=3|pages=223–241|pmid=1285450|pmc=2589595}}</ref> Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease.<ref name = bay/> Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.faqs.org/health/bios/12/Erasistratus.html |title= Erasistratus Biography (304B.C-250B.C) |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date= 16 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116054307/https://www.faqs.org/health/bios/12/Erasistratus.html |url-status=bot: unknown |website=Free Health Encyclopedia - faqs.org }}</ref> During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Erasistratus of Ceos: Greek Physician|date = April 3, 2018 |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erasistratus-of-Ceos|encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=|archive-date=21 April 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190421000007/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erasistratus-of-Ceos |url-status=live}}</ref> During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Wiltse|first1=LL|last2=Pait|first2=TG|title=Herophilus of Alexandria (325-255 B.C.) The Father of Anatomy|journal=Spine|date=1 September 1998|volume= 23 |issue= 17 |pages= 1904–1914|pmid=9762750|doi=10.1097/00007632-199809010-00022}}</ref> and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses.<ref name="Longrigg"/> It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis.<ref name = bay/> Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wills|first1=Adrian|title=Herophilus, Ersasistratus, and the birth of neuroscience|journal=The Lancet |date=1999 |volume= 354|issue=9191|pages=1719–1720|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02081-4|pmid=10568587|s2cid=30110082|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(99)02081-4/references |access-date=25 November 2015|archive-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028095251/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(99)02081-4/references |url-status=live}}</ref> Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book|last1=Von Staden|first1=Heinrich |title=Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria|date=October 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521041782|url=https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/classical-studies/ancient-philosophy/herophilus-art-medicine-early-alexandria-edition-translation-and-essays|access-date=25 November 2015|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053822/https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/classical-studies/ancient-philosophy/herophilus-art-medicine-early-alexandria-edition-translation-and-essays|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Zahrawi1.png|200px|thumb|right|Surgical instruments were invented by [[Abulcasis]] in the 11th century]]
[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Anatomy of the eye for the first time in history by [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] in the 9th century]]
[[File:13th century anatomical illustration.jpg|thumb|13th century anatomical illustration]]

Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/>

The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'', an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston | author-link=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=VI | pages=419–427 |year=1972 | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | location=New York}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] described [[vertebrate]] anatomy based on animal [[dissection]]. [[Praxagoras]] identified the difference between [[arteries]] and [[vein]]s. Also in the 4th century BCE, [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on [[vivisection]] of criminals in [[Alexandria]] during the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]].<ref name=Bodies>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xb9e3SLAZwC&q=Ptolemaic+vivisection&pg=PA256 | title=Medicine and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt | author=Lang, Philippa | publisher=Brill NV | year=2013 | page=256 | isbn=978-9004218581 | access-date=15 October 2020 | archive-date=16 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416082236/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xb9e3SLAZwC&q=Ptolemaic+vivisection&pg=PA256 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/alexandrian/ "Alexandrian Medicine"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220135427/https://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/alexandrian/ |date=20 February 2017 }}. ''Antiqua Medicina – from Homer to Vesalius''. University of Virginia.</ref>

In the 2nd century, [[Galen of Pergamum]], an anatomist, [[clinician]], writer, and philosopher,<ref name="BritBrit-Galen"/> wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times.<ref name="pmid1081972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Charon NW, Johnson RC, Muschel LH | title = Antileptospiral activity in lower-vertebrate sera | journal = Infect. Immun. | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 1386–1391 | year = 1975 | pmid = 1081972 | pmc = 415446 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.12.6.1386-1391.1975}}</ref> He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals.<ref name="BritBrit-Galen">{{cite encyclopedia |chapter-url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD |chapter=Galen of Pergamum |first=Vivien |last=Hutton |access-date=13 May 2014 |archive-date=6 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406224329/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |url-status=live }}</ref> He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his [[vivisection]] experiments on animals.<ref>Brock, Arthur John (translator) ''[https://archive.org/stream/galenonnaturalfa00galeuoft#page/xxxii/mode/2up Galen. On the Natural Faculties]''. Edinburgh, 1916. Introduction, page xxxiii.</ref> Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.<ref name=Boas/> His work was known to [[Renaissance]] doctors only through [[Islamic Golden Age]] medicine until it was translated from Greek sometime in the 15th century.<ref name=Boas/>