Editing Alchemy (section)

== Modernity ==
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of [[chemistry]], the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the [[exoteric]], such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the '''Decknamen''<nowiki/>' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ Smithsonian Magazine.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202131219/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/ |date=2 February 2014 }} February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the [[Western esotericism|esoteric]], scholars, such as [[Florin George Călian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Calian |first=George |title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher=Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year=2010 |url=https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up}}</ref> and [[Anna Marie Roos]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.08.001 |title=The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, the Secrets of Alchemy) |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=787–789 |year=2013 |last1=Roos |first1=Anna Marie}}</ref> who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same ''Decknamen'' as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.

New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "[[occult]]ists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances",<ref name="Alchemy Restored" /> which has contributed to a merger of [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought.

=== Esoteric interpretations of historical texts ===
In the eyes of a variety of modern [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] and [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Neo-Hermetic]] practitioners, alchemy is primarily spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of [[lead]] into [[gold]] is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p. 96</ref>

According to this view, early alchemists such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] ({{circa|300 AD}}) highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<ref>[[Allen G. Debus]]. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.</ref> This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' hid a [[spiritual philosophy]]. In the [[Hermeticism|Neo-Hermeticist]] interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal [[panacea]] are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the [[philosopher's stone]] then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are believed to have been written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.

In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', [[Théodore Henri de Tschudi]] suggested that the usage of the metals was symbolic:

{{blockquote|<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?
A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his ''L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.'' 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.'')</ref></poem>}}

=== Psychology ===
[[Alchemical symbol]]ism has been important in [[analytical psychology]] and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'', a Chinese alchemical text translated by his friend [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]], he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called "[[individuation]]". Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of [[philosopher's stone|gold or Lapis]] as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation".<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944">Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 {{ISBN|0-691-01831-6}}). London: Routledge. E.g. §&nbsp;41, §&nbsp;116, §&nbsp;427, §&nbsp;431, §&nbsp;448.</ref><ref name="Eisendrath-Dawson" /> Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror'' (mystical sister) Jungian Swiss analyst [[Marie-Louise von Franz]], Jung began collecting old alchemical texts, compiled a [[lexicon]] of key phrases with cross-references,<ref>Anthony Stevens: ''On Jung.'' (A new and authoritiative introduction to Jung's life and thought), Penguin Books, London 1990, {{ISBN|0-14-012494-2}}, p. 193.</ref> and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of [[transubstantiation]] and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''[[hieros gamos]]'', or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general [[psychology]], but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]]) that comprise all psychic life.<ref name="Eisendrath-Dawson">[[Polly Young-Eisendrath]], Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33</ref><ref>C.G. Jung Preface to [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]]'s translation of the [[I Ching]].</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of [[Secret of the Golden Flower|The Secret of The Golden Flower]].</ref>

Both [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]] and [[Carl Jung|Jung]] have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''[[Mysterium Coniunctionis]]''.

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Alchemy in art and entertainment}}
Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szönyi |first=György E. |date=1 December 2012 |title="Contending with the Fretful Element": Shakespeare and the (Gendered) Great Chain of Being |journal=Gender Studies |language=de |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.2478/v10320-012-0025-6 |s2cid=143130101|doi-access=free}}</ref> to [[J. K. Rowling]], and also the popular Japanese manga ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]''. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir [[Terry Pratchett]]. Another literary work taking inspiration from the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel ''[[The Alchemist (novel)|The Alchemist]]'' by Brazilian writer [[Paulo Coelho]].

Visual artists have had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some used it as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 June 1935 |title=Alchemy and Music |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/135967a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=135 |issue=3423 |pages=967–968 |doi=10.1038/135967a0 |bibcode=1935Natur.135..967. |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=11 January 2024 |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111200919/https://www.nature.com/articles/135967a0 |url-status=live}}</ref> and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and [[Paracelsianism|spagyric]] role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.

=== Science ===
{{further|Nuclear transmutation}}
One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, [[Synthesis of precious metals#Gold|gold was synthesized]] in [[particle accelerator]]s as early as 1941.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aleklett |first1=K. |last2=Morrissey |first2=D. J. |last3=Loveland |first3=W. |last4=McGaughey |first4=P. L. |last5=Seaborg |first5=G. T. |date=1 March 1981 |title=Energy dependence of <sup>209</sup>Bi fragmentation in relativistic nuclear collisions |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevC.23.1044 |journal=Physical Review C |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=1044–1046 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.23.1044 |bibcode=1981PhRvC..23.1044A}}</ref>