Editing Vikings (section)

===Social structure===
[[File:Chieftains house (reconstruction) (cropped).jpg|thumb|A large reconstructed chieftains [[longhouse]] at [[Lofotr Viking Museum]], Norway]]
[[File:Busdorf - Haithabu - Wikinger-Häuser 05 ies.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed town houses from [[Haithabu]] (now in Germany)]]

Viking society was divided into the three socio-economic classes: ''[[thrall]]s'', ''karls'' and ''[[jarl]]s''. This is described vividly in the [[Eddic poem]] of ''[[Rígsþula]]'', which also explains that it was the god [[Ríg (Norse god)|Ríg]]—father of mankind also known as [[Heimdallr]]—who created the three classes. Archaeology has confirmed this social structure.<ref name="Roesdahl 38">Roesdahl, pp. 38–48, 61–71.</ref>
* The lowest ranking class were ''thralls'', [[Old Norse]] for slaves, who comprised as much as a quarter of the population.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Vikings may have first taken to seas to find women, slaves |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/vikings-may-have-first-taken-seas-find-women-slaves |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=15 April 2016 |access-date=1 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801190115/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/04/vikings-may-have-first-taken-seas-find-women-slaves |archive-date=1 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Slavery was vital to Viking society – for everyday chores and large-scale construction, and also for trading and for the economy. ''Thralls'' were servants and workers on the farms and in larger households of the ''karls'' and ''jarls'', and they were used for constructing fortifications, ramps, canals, mounds, roads and similar projects built by hard labour. According to the ''Rígsþula'', ''thralls'' were despised and looked down upon.<ref name="Karras2017">{{cite book |last1=Karras |first1=Ruth Mazo |editor1-last=Pargas |editor1-first=Damian Alan |editor2-last=Roşu |editor2-first=Felicia |title=Critical Readings on Global Slavery |date=2017 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-34661-1 |pages=729–735 |chapter=The Identity of the Slave in Scandinavia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdBCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA729 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211001434/https://books.google.com/books?id=wdBCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA729 |url-status=live }}</ref> New ''thralls'' were supplied by either the sons and daughters of ''thralls'', or were captured abroad by the Vikings on their raids in Europe. The ''thralls'' were brought back to Scandinavia by boat, used on location or in newer settlements to build needed structures, or sold, often to the Arabs in exchange for silver [[dirhams]] or [[silk]].{{sfn|Frankopan|2015|pages=117-121}}{{sfn|Reuter|1995|page=91}}
* Free peasants (''karlar''). They owned farms, land and cattle, and engaged in chores like ploughing the fields, milking the cows, and building houses and wagons, but used thralls to make ends meet. Other names for ''karls'' were ''bonde'' or simply free men. Similar classes were ''[[churl]]''s and ''[[Housecarl|huskarls]]''.{{sfn|Frankopan|2015|pages=117-121}}
* [[Aristocracy (class)|Aristocracy]] (''jarlar''). They were wealthy and owned large estates with huge longhouses, horses and many thralls. The ''thralls'' did most of the daily chores, while the ''jarls'' carried out administration, politics, hunting, and sports – they also visited other ''jarls'' or went abroad on expeditions. When a ''jarl'' died and was buried, his household thralls were sometimes [[Human sacrifice in Germanic paganism|sacrificially killed]] and buried next to him, as many excavations have revealed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/english/research/news-and-events/news/2013/double-graves-with-headless-slaves.html|title=Double graves with headless slaves|date=5 December 2013|access-date=23 June 2014|author=Mari Kildah|publisher=University of Oslo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011090033/http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/english/research/news-and-events/news/2013/double-graves-with-headless-slaves.html|archive-date=11 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

In daily life, there were many intermediate positions in the overall social structure and it appears that there was some social mobility between them. These details are unclear, but titles and positions like ''hauldr'', ''thegn'', and ''landmand'', show mobility between the ''karls'' and the ''jarls''.

Other social structures included the communities of ''félag'' in both the civil and the military spheres, to which its members (called ''félagi'') were obliged. A félag could be centred around certain trades, a common ownership of a sea vessel or a military obligation under a specific leader. Members of the latter were referred to as ''drenge'', one of the words for warrior. There were also official communities within towns and villages, the overall defence, religion, the legal system and the ''[[Thing (assembly)|Things]]''.

====Status of women====
[[File:Eiríksstaðir - Wikingerschmuck.jpg|thumb|Typical jewellery worn by women of the ''karls'' and ''jarls'': ornamented silver brooches, coloured glass-beads and amulets]]
Like elsewhere in medieval Europe, most women in Viking society were subordinate to their husbands and fathers and had little political power.<ref name="Magnúsdóttir">Magnúsdóttir, Auður. "Women and sexual politics", in ''The Viking World''. Routledge, 2008. pp.40–45</ref><ref name="Women Denmark Museum">[https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/women/ "Women in the Viking Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903201903/https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/women/ |date=3 September 2021 }}. [[National Museum of Denmark]].</ref> However, written sources portray free Viking women as having independence and rights. Viking women generally appear to have had more freedom than women elsewhere,<ref name="Women Denmark Museum"/> as illustrated in the Icelandic [[Grágás]] and the Norwegian [[Frostating]] laws and [[Gulating]] laws.<ref name="ReferenceB">Borgström Eva {{in lang|sv}}: Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. {{ISBN|91-501-0191-9}} (inb.). Libris 8707902.</ref>

Most free Viking women were housewives, and a woman's standing in society was linked to that of her husband.<ref name="Women Denmark Museum"/> Marriage gave a woman a degree of economic security and social standing encapsulated in the title ''húsfreyja'' (lady of the house). Norse laws assert the housewife's authority over the 'indoor household'. She had the important roles of managing the farm's resources, conducting business, as well as child-rearing, although some of this would be shared with her husband.<ref name="Friðriksdóttir">Friðriksdóttir, Jóhanna. ''Valkyrie: The Women of the Viking World''. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020. pp.98–100.</ref>

After the age of 20, an unmarried woman, referred to as ''maer'' and ''mey'', reached legal majority and had the right to decide her place of residence and was regarded as her own person before the law.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> An exception to her independence was the right to choose a husband, as marriages were normally arranged by the family.<ref>Borgström Eva{{in lang|sv}}: Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. {{ISBN|91-501-0191-9}} (inb.). Libris 8707902.</ref> The groom would pay a [[bride-price]] (''mundr'') to the bride's family, and the bride brought assets into the marriage, as a [[dowry]].<ref name="Friðriksdóttir"/> A married woman could divorce her husband and remarry.<ref name="Women Denmark Museum"/><ref name="ReferenceC">Ohlander, Ann-Sofie & Strömberg, Ulla-Britt, Tusen svenska kvinnoår: svensk kvinnohistoria från vikingatid till nutid, 3. (A Thousand Swedish Women's Years: Swedish Women's History from the Viking Age until now), [omarb. och utök.] uppl., Norstedts akademiska förlag, Stockholm, 2008</ref>

[[Concubinage]] was also part of Viking society, whereby a woman could live with a man and have children with him without marrying; such a woman was called a ''frilla''.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Usually she would be the mistress of a wealthy and powerful man who also had a wife.<ref name="Magnúsdóttir"/> The wife had authority over the mistresses if they lived in her household.<ref name="Women Denmark Museum"/> Through her relationship to a man of higher social standing, a concubine and her family could advance socially; although her position was less secure than that of a wife.<ref name="Magnúsdóttir"/> There was little distinction made between children born inside or outside marriage: both had the right to inherit property from their parents, and there were no "legitimate" or "illegitimate" children.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> However, children born in wedlock had more inheritance rights than those born out of wedlock.<ref name="Friðriksdóttir"/>

A woman had the right to inherit part of her husband's property upon his death,<ref name="Friðriksdóttir"/> and widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as ''odalkvinna'', all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> A woman with no husband, sons or male relatives could inherit not only property but also the position as head of the family when her father or brother died. Such a woman was referred to as ''[[Baugrygr]]'', and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family [[clan]], until she married, by which her rights were transferred to her new husband.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses (''gydja'') and oracles (''sejdkvinna'').<ref name="autogenerated2004">Ingelman-Sundberg, Catharina, ''Forntida kvinnor: jägare, vikingahustru, prästinna'' [Ancient women: hunters, viking wife, priestess], Prisma, Stockholm, 2004</ref> They were active within art as poets (''[[skald]]er'')<ref name="autogenerated2004"/> and [[rune master]]s, and as merchants and medicine women.<ref name="autogenerated2004"/> There may also have been female entrepreneurs, who worked in [[textile]] production.<ref name="Women Denmark Museum"/> Women may also have been active within military offices: the tales about [[shieldmaiden]]s are unconfirmed, but some archaeological finds such as the [[Birka female Viking warrior]] may indicate that at least some women in military authority existed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hedenstierna-Jonson|first1=Charlotte|last2=Kjellström|first2=Anna|last3=Zachrisson|first3=Torun|last4=Krzewińska|first4=Maja|last5=Sobrado|first5=Veronica|last6=Price|first6=Neil|last7=Günther|first7=Torsten|last8=Jakobsson|first8=Mattias|last9=Götherström|first9=Anders|last10=Storå|first10=Jan|date=December 2017|title=A female Viking warrior confirmed by genomics|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|language=en|volume=164|issue=4|pages=853–860|doi=10.1002/ajpa.23308|pmc=5724682|pmid=28884802}}</ref>

These liberties of the Viking women gradually disappeared after the introduction of Christianity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clover|first=Carol J.|s2cid=165868233|date=April 1993|title=Regardless of Sex: Men, Women, and Power in Early Northern Europe|journal=Speculum|language=en|volume=68|issue=2|pages=363–387|doi=10.2307/2864557|issn=0038-7134|jstor=2864557}}</ref> and from the late 13th century, they are no longer mentioned.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

Examination of Viking Age burials suggests that women lived longer, and nearly all well past the age of 35, as compared to earlier times. Female graves from before the Viking Age in Scandinavia hold a proportionally large number of remains from women aged 20 to 35, presumably due to complications of childbirth.<ref>Jesch, 13</ref>

Examination of skeletal remains also allows the relative health and nutritional status of boys and girls in the past to be reconstructed, using [[Anthropometry|anthropometric]] techniques. Burials from Scandinavia and other European countries suggest that, in comparison with other societies at the time, female equality was remarkably high in rural Scandinavia. Females in the rural periphery of Nordic countries during the Viking period and the later [[Middle Ages]] had relatively high status, resulting in substantial nutritional and health resources being allocated to girls, enabling them to grow stronger and healthier.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Joerg|last2=Maravall Buckwalter|first2=Laura|date=2019|title=Valkyries: Was Gender Equality High in the Scandinavian Periphery since Viking Times? Evidence from Enamel Hypoplasia and Height Ratios|journal=Economics and Human Biology|volume=34|pages=181–193|doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2019.05.007|pmid=31208936|s2cid=190513459}}</ref>

====Appearance====
[[File:Vikings costumes woman man Arkeologisk museum Stavanger, Norway 2015-05-27.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed Vikings costume on display at Archaeological Museum in Stavanger, Norway]]

Scandinavian Vikings were similar in appearance to modern [[North Germanic peoples|Scandinavians]]: "their skin was fair and the hair color varied between blond, dark and reddish". Genetic studies suggest that people were mostly blond in what is now eastern Sweden, while red hair was mostly found in western Scandinavia.<ref name="Hjardar appearance">Hjardar, Kim. ''Vikings''. Rosen Publishing, 2018. pp.37–41</ref> Most Viking men had shoulder-length hair and beards, and slaves (thralls) were usually the only men with short hair.<ref name="Sherrow">Sherrow, Victoria. ''Encyclopedia of Hair: A Cultural History''. Greenwood Publishing, 2006. p.389</ref> The length varied according to personal preference and occupation. Men involved in warfare, for example, may have had slightly shorter hair and beards for practical reasons. Men in some regions bleached their hair a [[Saffron (color)|golden saffron]] colour.<ref name="Sherrow"/> Females also had long hair, with girls often wearing it loose or braided, and married women often wearing it in a bun.<ref name="Sherrow"/> The average height is estimated to have been {{cvt|5|ft|7|in|m|order=flip}} for men and {{cvt|5|ft|1|in|m|order=flip}} for women.<ref name="Hjardar appearance"/>

The three classes were easily recognisable by their appearance. Men and women of the Jarls were well groomed with neat hairstyles and expressed their wealth and status by wearing expensive clothes (often silk) and well-crafted jewellery like [[brooch]]es, belt buckles, necklaces and arm rings. Almost all of the jewellery was crafted in specific designs unique to the Norse (see [[Viking art]]). Finger rings were seldom used and earrings were not used at all, as they were seen as a [[Slavic people|Slavic]] phenomenon. Most ''karls'' expressed similar tastes and hygiene, but in a more relaxed and inexpensive way.<ref name="Roesdahl 38"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/appearance/|title=Appearance – What did the Vikings look like?|publisher=National Museum of Denmark|access-date=20 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502052336/http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/appearance/|archive-date=2 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Archaeological finds from Scandinavia and Viking settlements in the British Isles support the idea of the well-groomed and hygienic Viking. Burial with grave goods was a common practice in the Scandinavian world, through the Viking Age and well past the Christianisation of the Norse peoples.<ref>Caroline Ahlström Arcini "Eight Viking Age Burials", The Viking Age: A Time With Many Faces, Oxbow Books (2018), pp. 5.</ref> Within these burial sites and homesteads, combs, often made from antler, are a common find.<ref>C. Paterson, "The combs, ornaments, weights and coins", Cille Pheadair: A Norse Farmstead and Pictish Burial Cairn in South Uist. Mike Parker Pearson, Mark Brennand, Jacqui Mulville and Helen Smith. Oxbow Books (2018), p. 293.</ref><ref name='IA'>{{cite journal|last1=Ashby|first1=SP|last2=Tomlinson|first2=L|last3=Presslee|first3=S|last4=Hendy|first4=J|last5=Bliss|first5=A|last6=Minter|first6=F|last7=Brock|first7=D|title=The Portable Antiquities Scheme and the potential of non-metallic finds: A Viking Comb from Shotley, Suffolk|journal=Internet Archaeology|date=2023|issue=61|doi=10.11141/ia.61.11|doi-access=free|url=http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue61/11/}}</ref> The manufacturing of such antler combs was common, as at the Viking settlement at Dublin hundreds of examples of combs from the tenth-century have survived, suggesting that grooming was a common practice. The manufacture of such combs was also widespread throughout the Viking world, as examples of similar combs have been found at Viking settlements in Ireland,<ref>Selwyn Kittredge, "Digging up Viking and Medieval Dublin", Archaeology, Vol.27, No. 2 (April 1974), pp. 134–36. Archaeological Institute of America.</ref> England,<ref>Caroline Peterson, "A Tale of two cemeteries: Viking Burials at Cumwhitton and Carlisle, Cumbria", Crossing Boundaries: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Art, Material Culture, Language and Literature of the Early Medieval World. Edited by, Eric Cambridge and Jane Hawkes. Oxbow Books (2017).</ref> and Scotland.<ref>C. Paterson, "The combs, ornaments, weights and coins", Cille Pheadair: A Norse Farmstead and Pictish Burial Cairn in South Uist. Mike Parker Pearson, Mark Brennand, Jacqui Mulville and Helen Smith. Oxbow Books (2018).</ref> The combs share a common visual appearance as well, with the extant examples often decorated with linear, interlacing, and geometric motifs, or other forms of ornamentation depending on the comb's period and type, but stylistically similar to Viking Age art.<ref>Ibid, pp. 296.</ref> All levels of Viking age society appear to have groomed their hair, as hair combs have been found in common graves as well as in aristocratic ones.<ref name="Arcini2018">{{cite book |last1=Arcini |first1=Caroline |title=The Viking Age: A Time with Many Faces |date=2018 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-941-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uC1lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211165627/https://books.google.com/books?id=uC1lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Farming and cuisine====
The [[saga]]s tell about the diet and cuisine of the Vikings,<ref>Sk. V. Gudjonsson (1941): ''Folkekost og sundhedsforhold i gamle dage. Belyst igennem den oldnordiske Litteratur. (Dvs. først og fremmest de islandske sagaer).'' København. {{in lang|da}} Short description in English: Diet and health in previous times, as revealed in the Old Norse Literature, especially the Icelandic Sagas.</ref> but first-hand evidence, like [[cesspit]]s, [[Midden|kitchen middens]] and garbage dumps have proved to be of great value and importance. Undigested remains of plants from cesspits at [[Coppergate]] in York have provided much information in this respect. Overall, archaeo-botanical investigations have been undertaken increasingly in recent decades, as a collaboration between archaeologists and palaeoethno-botanists. This new approach sheds light on the agricultural and [[horticulture|horticultural]] practices of the Vikings and their cuisine.<ref name="Horticulture">{{Cite journal|url=http://communicatingculture.dk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Danish-Journal-of-Archaeology-2013.pdf|title=Viking Age garden plants from southern Scandinavia – diversity, taphonomy and cultural aspect|author=Pernille Rohde Sloth, Ulla Lund Hansen & Sabine Karg|journal=Danish Journal of Archaeology|year=2013|access-date=19 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725012641/http://communicatingculture.dk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Danish-Journal-of-Archaeology-2013.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Rundbottnat kärl av täljsten, delvis rekonstruerat, vikingatid (sq).jpg|thumb|Pot of soapstone, partly reconstructed, Viking Age (from [[Birka]], Sweden)]]

The combined information from various sources suggests a diverse cuisine and ingredients. Meat products of all kinds, such as [[Curing (food preservation)|cured]], [[smoked meat|smoked]] and [[whey]]-preserved meat,<ref>This will cause a [[lactic acid fermentation]] process to occur.</ref> sausages, and boiled or fried fresh meat cuts, were prepared and consumed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/da/viden/mad/mad-forraad.aspx|title=Forråd til vinteren – Salte, syrne, røge og tørre [Supplies for the winter – curing, fermenting, smoking and drying]|language=da|website=Ribe Vikingecenter|access-date=20 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907022203/http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/da/viden/mad/mad-forraad.aspx|archive-date=7 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> There were plenty of seafood, bread, porridges, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, berries and nuts. Alcoholic drinks like [[beer]], [[mead]], [[bjórr]] (a strong fruit wine) and, for the rich, imported [[wine]], were served.<ref name="Roesdahl 54">Roesdahl, p. 54</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/food/|title=Viking Food|publisher=National Museum of Denmark|access-date=20 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428235548/http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/food|archive-date=28 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Certain livestock were typical and unique to the Vikings, including the [[Icelandic horse]], [[Icelandic cattle]], a plethora of sheep breeds,<ref>See the article on the [[Northern European short-tailed sheep]] for specific information. In southern Scandinavia (i.e. Denmark), the [[Heidschnucke|heath sheep]] of ''Lüneburger Heidschnucke'' was raised and kept.</ref> the [[Danish hen]] and the [[Danish landrace goose|Danish goose]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/manor-farm-animals.aspx|title=The animals on the farm – Genetic connection|website=Ribe Vikingecenter|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419203215/http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/manor-farm-animals.aspx|archive-date=19 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gl-estrup.dk/en/home/old-danish-breeds/poultry.aspx|title=Poultry|website=Danish Agricultural Museum|access-date=19 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419205110/http://www.gl-estrup.dk/en/home/old-danish-breeds/poultry.aspx|archive-date=19 April 2015}}</ref> The Vikings in York mostly ate beef, [[Lamb and mutton|mutton]], and pork with small amounts of horse meat. Most of the beef and horse leg bones were found split lengthways, to extract the marrow. The mutton and swine were cut into leg and shoulder joints and chops. The frequent remains of pig skull and foot bones found on house floors indicate that [[brawn]] and [[Pig's trotters|trotters]] were also popular. Hens were kept for both their meat and eggs, and the bones of game birds such as [[black grouse]], [[golden plover]], wild ducks, and geese have also been found.<ref>O'Conner, Terry. 1999? "The Home – Food and Meat." Viking Age York. Jorvik Viking Centre.</ref>

Seafood was important, in some places even more so than meat. [[Whale]]s and [[walrus]] were hunted for food in Norway and the northwestern parts of the [[North Atlantic]] region, and [[Pinniped|seals]] were hunted nearly everywhere. [[Oyster]]s, [[mussel]]s and [[shrimp]] were eaten in large quantities and [[cod]] and [[salmon]] were popular fish. In the southern regions, [[herring]] was also important.<ref>Roesdahl pp. 102–17</ref><ref>Nedkvitne, Arnved. "Fishing, Whaling and Seal Hunting." in {{cite book|title=Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia|author=Pulsiano, Phillip |year=1993|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IF7kxs-A92AC&q=bioarchaeological+vikings+fish&pg=PA99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421021802/https://books.google.com/books?id=IF7kxs-A92AC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=bioarchaeological+vikings+fish&source=bl&ots=WADFgx5Hiz&sig=V0wA9vVw-DxQvTTLcB3fY_d7fqo&hl=da&sa=X&ei=YWOoU-q6JujiywPSwYKYBg&ved=0CFsQ6AEwBzgK |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 April 2016 |title=Hunting, fishing and animal husbandry at The Farm Beneath The Sand, Western Greenland |author=Inge Bødker Enghoff |access-date=23 June 2014 |year=2013 |journal=Man & Society |volume=28 |institution=the Greenland National Museum, Dansk Polar Center |isbn=978-8763512602}}</ref>

Milk and [[buttermilk]] were popular, both as cooking ingredients and drinks, but were not always available, even at farms.<ref name="Viking Feast"/> Milk came from cows, goats and sheep, with priorities varying from location to location,<ref>Roesdahl, pp. 110–11</ref> and fermented milk products like [[skyr]] or [[Filmjölk|surmjölk]] were produced as well as butter and cheese.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fondén |first1=R |last2=Leporanta |first2=K |last3=Svensson |first3=U |editor1-first=Adnan |editor1-last=Tamime |title=Fermented Milks |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0632064588 |doi=10.1002/9780470995501.ch7 |chapter=Chapter 7. Nordic/Scandinavian Fermented Milk Products |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKAu9IYnK2wC&q=Chapter+7.+Nordic%2FScandinavian+Fermented+Milk+Products&pg=PA164 |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414031019/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKAu9IYnK2wC&q=Chapter+7.+Nordic%2FScandinavian+Fermented+Milk+Products&pg=PA164 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Food was often salted and enhanced with spices, some of which were imported like [[black pepper]], while others were cultivated in herb gardens or harvested in the wild. Home grown spices included [[caraway]], [[Mustard seed|mustard]] and [[horseradish]] as evidenced from the Oseberg ship burial<ref name="Roesdahl 54"/> or [[dill]], [[coriander]], and [[Angelica archangelica|wild celery]], as found in [[cesspit]]s at Coppergate in York. [[Thyme]], [[juniper berry]], [[sweet gale]], [[yarrow]], [[rue]] and [[peppercress]] were also used and cultivated in herb gardens.<ref name="Horticulture"/><ref name="Seastallion">{{cite web|url=http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/fileadmin/vikingeskibsmuseet/_frontend_files_/grafik/UndervisningsPDFer/Mad_udskriftsark_2.pdf|title=The Seastallion from Glendalough|language=da|publisher=Vikingeskibsmuseet|access-date=19 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021190423/http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/fileadmin/vikingeskibsmuseet/_frontend_files_/grafik/UndervisningsPDFer/Mad_udskriftsark_2.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Faroe stamps 515-517 everyday life in the viking age.jpg|thumb|Everyday life in the Viking Age]]
Vikings collected and ate fruits, berries and nuts. Apple (wild [[crab apple]]s), plums and cherries were part of the diet,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> as were [[rose hips]] and [[raspberry]], [[Fragaria|wild strawberry]], [[blackberry]], [[elderberry]], [[rowan]], [[common hawthorn|hawthorn]] and various wild berries, specific to the locations.<ref name="Seastallion"/> [[Hazelnut]]s were an important part of the diet in general and large amounts of [[Juglans regia|walnut]] shells have been found in cities like Hedeby. The shells were used for dyeing, and it is assumed that the nuts were consumed.<ref name="Horticulture"/><ref name="Viking Feast">{{cite web|url=http://ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/food-solstice-feast.aspx |title=A Viking Feast – an abundance of foods |website=Ribe Vikingecenter |access-date=19 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714132855/http://ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/food-solstice-feast.aspx |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}</ref>

The invention and introduction of the [[mouldboard plough]] revolutionised agriculture in Scandinavia in the early Viking Age and made it possible to farm even poor soils. In [[Ribe]], grains of [[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]] and [[wheat]] dated to the 8th century have been found and examined, and are believed to have been cultivated locally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/manor-farm-crops.aspx|title=The farm crops|website=Ribe Vikingecenter|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420030509/http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/en/learn-more/manor-farm-crops.aspx|archive-date=20 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Grains and flour were used for making porridges, some cooked with milk, some cooked with fruit and sweetened with honey, and also various forms of bread. Remains of bread from primarily Birka in Sweden were made of barley and wheat. It is unclear if the Norse leavened their breads, but their ovens and baking utensils suggest that they did.<ref name="RibeBread">{{cite web|url=http://ribevikingecenter.dk/da/viden/mad-korn,-broed.aspx |title=From grains to bread – coarse, heavy and filling |language=da |website=Ribe Vikingecenter |access-date=19 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714194517/http://ribevikingecenter.dk/da/viden/mad-korn,-broed.aspx |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}</ref> [[Flax]] was a very important crop for the Vikings: it was used for oil extraction, food consumption, and most importantly, the production of [[linen]]. More than 40% of all known textile recoveries from the Viking Age can be traced as linen. This suggests a much higher actual percentage, as linen is poorly preserved compared to wool, for example.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/media/10424/Flaxreport.pdf|title=From Flax To Linen – experiments with flax at Ribe Viking Centre|publisher=[[University of Southern Denmark]]|author=Bo Ejstrud|display-authors=et al.|year=2011|isbn=978-87-992214-6-2|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090931/http://www.ribevikingecenter.dk/media/10424/Flaxreport.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

The quality of food for common people was not always particularly high. The research at Coppergate shows that the Vikings in York made bread from wholemeal flour—probably both wheat and [[rye]]—but with the seeds of cornfield weeds included. Corncockle ([[Agrostemma]]), would have made the bread dark-coloured, but the seeds are poisonous, and people who ate the bread might have become ill. Seeds of carrots, [[parsnip]], and [[brassicas]] were also discovered, but they were poor specimens and tend to come from white carrots and bitter tasting cabbages.<ref name="ReferenceA">Hall, A. R. 1999 "The Home: Food – Fruit, Grain and Vegetable." Viking Age York. The [[Jorvik Viking Centre]].</ref> The [[rotary quern]]s often used in the Viking Age left tiny stone fragments (often from [[basalt]] rock) in the flour, which when eaten wore down the teeth. The effects of this can be seen on skeletal remains from that period.<ref name="RibeBread"/>

====Sports====
Sports were widely practised and encouraged by the Vikings.<ref name="Wolf2004">{{harvnb|Wolf|2004|pp=142–143}}</ref> Sports that involved weapons training and developing combat skills were popular. These included spear and stone throwing, building and testing physical strength through [[wrestling]] (see [[glima]]), [[Boxing|fist fighting]], and stone lifting.<ref name="MallonWidlund2002">{{cite book |last1=Mallon |first1=Bill |last2=Widlund |first2=Ture |title=The 1912 Olympic Games: Results for All Competitors in All Events, with Commentary |year=2002 |publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers |isbn=978-0-7864-1047-7 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUQTAQAAIAAJ&q=%22stone%20throwing%22 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211234642/https://books.google.com/books?id=JUQTAQAAIAAJ&q=%22stone%20throwing%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> In areas with mountains, [[Mountaineering|mountain climbing]] was practised as a sport. Agility and balance were built and tested by running and jumping for sport, and there is mention of a sport that involved jumping from oar to oar on the outside of a ship's railing as it was being rowed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chrisp |first1=Peter |title=Vikings |year=1995 |publisher=BBC Educational |isbn=9780563352594 |page=12 }}</ref> [[Swimming (sport)|Swimming]] was a popular sport<ref name="Christiansen2008">{{cite book |last1=Christiansen |first1=Eric |title=Norsemen in the Viking Age |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-69276-9 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viU8FoYuEUQC&pg=PA79 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211235428/https://books.google.com/books?id=viU8FoYuEUQC&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> – [[Snorri Sturluson]] describes three types: diving, long-distance swimming, and a contest in which two swimmers try to dunk one another. Children often participated in some of the sport disciplines,<ref name="Pörtner1975">{{cite book |last1=Pörtner |first1=Rudolf |title=The Vikings: Rise and Fall of the Norse Sea Kings |year=1975 |publisher=St. James Press |isbn=978-0-900997-33-4 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMYiAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Physical%20exercise%22 |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211234203/https://books.google.com/books?id=fMYiAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Physical%20exercise%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> and women have also been mentioned as swimmers, although it is unclear if they took part in competitions. King [[Olaf Tryggvason]] was acclaimed for his skill in both mountain climbing and oar-jumping, and reputedly excelled in the art of [[knife juggling]] as well. [[Skiing]] and [[ice skating]] were the principal winter sports, and also provided transport on snow and ice for adults.<ref name="Wolf2004" />

Horse fighting was practised for sport, although the rules are unclear. It appears to have involved two stallions pitted against each other, within smell and sight of fenced-off mares. Whatever the rules were, the fights often resulted in the death of one of the stallions.

Icelandic sources often mention ''[[knattleikr|knattleik]]'', a ball game similar to [[hockey]], played with a bat and a small hard ball, usually on a smooth surface of ice. Popular with both adults and children, it was a rugged game that often led to injuries. Knattleik appears to have been played only in Iceland, where it attracted many spectators, as did horse fighting.<ref name="Wolf2004" />

Hunting was practised as a sport only in Denmark, where it was not an essential food source. Deer and [[hare]]s were hunted for meat, along with partridges and sea birds, while foxes were hunted to stop their killing of farm animals and for their furs. Spears, bows, and later crossbows, were the weapons used; stalking was the most common method, although game was also chased with dogs. Numerous kinds of snares and traps were used as well.<ref name="Wolf2004" />

====Games and entertainment====
[[File:NMSLewisChessmen6.jpg|thumb|Rook, [[Lewis chessmen]], at the National Museum of Scotland]]
Archaeological finds and written sources indicate that the Vikings participated in social gatherings and festivities.<ref name=NatMus>{{cite web|url=http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/games-and-entertainment/|title=Games and entertainment in the Viking period|publisher=National Museum of Denmark|access-date=20 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502075927/http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/games-and-entertainment/|archive-date=2 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=SportsGames>{{cite web |url=http://sciencenordic.com/how-vikings-killed-time |title=How Vikings killed time |website=ScienceNordic |author=Isak Ladegaard |date=19 November 2012 |access-date=1 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220023325/http://sciencenordic.com/how-vikings-killed-time |archive-date=20 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Board games and dice games were a popular pastime. Game boards were made of ornately carved wood, with gaming pieces fashioned mostly from wood, bone, or stone. Pieces were also made of glass, [[amber]], and antler, along with materials such as [[walrus]] tusk and ivory from foreign sources. The Vikings played several types of ''tafl'' games; ''[[hnefatafl]]'', ''nitavl'' ([[nine men's morris]]) and the less common ''[[Tafl games|kvatrutafl]]''.<ref name="Wolf2004" />

''Hnefatafl'' was probably the oldest type of board game played in medieval Scandinavia.<ref name="Wolf2004" /> The archaeological record indicates that ''hnefatafl'' was popular by the early medieval period, with the Vikings introducing it to England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.<ref name="Lapidge2005">{{cite book |last1=Lapidge |first1=Michael |title=Latin Learning and English Lore: Studies in Anglo-Saxon Literature for Michael Lapidge |date=2005 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8919-9 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rEkOX8NmM0C&pg=RA1-PA13 |volume=1 |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212071920/https://books.google.com/books?id=7rEkOX8NmM0C&pg=RA1-PA13 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ockelbo Runestone]] shows two men possibly playing ''hnefatafl'',<ref name="Schulte2017">{{cite journal |last1=Schulte |first1=Michael |title=Board games of the Vikings – From hnefatafl to chess |journal=Maal og Minne |date=11 January 2018 |volume=109 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/268146544.pdf |access-date=12 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212071921/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/268146544.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and one saga suggests that dice games involved gambling.<ref name=NatMus/>

Beer and mead were served on festive occasions, where music was played, [[skaldic poetry|poetry]] was recited, and stories were told.<ref name=NatMus/> Music was considered an art form and musical skill was viewed as suitable for a cultivated man. The Vikings are known to have played instruments including harps, [[lute]]s, [[lyre]]s and fiddles.<ref name="Wolf2004" />