Editing Tuatara (section)

==Conservation==
Tuatara are absolutely protected under New Zealand's [[Wildlife Act 1953]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Wildlife Act 1953 |url=https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1953/0031/latest/whole.html |website=New Zealand Legislation |publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=18 January 2022}}</ref> The species is also listed under Appendix&nbsp;I of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES) meaning commercial international trade in wild sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permit system.<ref>{{cite web |title=Appendices |website=CITES (cites.org) |publisher=[[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] |url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php |access-date=2022-01-14}}</ref>
[[File:Tuatara, Nelson, NZ imported from iNaturalist photo 450639255.jpg|thumb|Tuatara sighted on the [[South Island]] mainland, in November 2024.]]

===Distribution and threats===
Tuatara were once widespread on New Zealand's main North and South Islands, where [[subfossil]] remains have been found in sand dunes, caves, and Māori [[midden]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1 = Towns, D.R. |author2 = Daugherty, C.H. |author3 = Cree, A. |title=Raising the prospects for a forgotten fauna: A review of 10&nbsp;years of conservation effort for New Zealand reptiles |journal=Biological Conservation |year=2001 |volume=99 |issue = 1 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(00)00184-1 |bibcode = 2001BCons..99....3T |url=http://www.claudius-r-us.com/forum/download/file.php?id=77 |access-date=11 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424131734/http://www.claudius-r-us.com/forum/download/file.php?id=77 |archive-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> Wiped out from the main islands before European settlement, they were long confined to 32&nbsp;offshore islands free of mammals.<ref name="DoC"/> The islands are difficult to get to,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2005|pp=59–60}}</ref> and are colonised by few animal species, indicating that some animals absent from these islands may have caused tuatara to disappear from the mainland. However, ''kiore'' (Polynesian rats) had recently become established on several of the islands, and tuatara were persisting, but not breeding, on these islands.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crook, I.G. |year=1973 |title=The tuatara, ''Sphenodon punctatus'' {{small|(Gray)}}, on islands with and without populations of the Polynesian rat, ''Rattus exulans'' {{small|(Peale)}} |journal=Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society |volume=20 |pages=115–120 |jstor=24061518 }}</ref><ref name=cree_etal1995>{{cite journal |author1 = Cree, A. |author2 = Daugherty, C.H. |author3 = Hay, J.M. |year = 1995 |title = Reproduction of a rare New Zealand reptile, the tuatara ''Sphenodon punctatus'', on rat-free and rat-inhabited islands |journal = Conservation Biology |volume = 9 |issue = 2 |pages = 373–383 |doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.9020373.x|bibcode = 1995ConBi...9..373C }}</ref> Additionally, tuatara were much rarer on the rat-inhabited islands.<ref name=cree_etal1995/> Prior to conservation work, 25% of the distinct tuatara populations had become extinct in the past century.<ref name = "Daugherty_1990">{{cite journal |author1 = Cree, A. |author2 = Daugherty, C.H. |author3 = Hay, J.M. |date=1990-09-01 |title=Neglected taxonomy and continuing extinctions of tuatara (''Sphenodon'') |journal=Nature |volume=347 |issue=6289 |pages=177–179 |doi=10.1038/347177a0 |bibcode=1990Natur.347..177D |s2cid=4342765}}</ref>

The recent discovery of a tuatara hatchling on the mainland indicates that attempts to re-establish a breeding population on the New Zealand mainland have had some success.<ref name=bergner>{{cite news |title=Rare reptile hatchling found in New Zealand |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 March 2009 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/mar/20/tuatara-reptile-new-zealand }}</ref> The total population of tuatara is estimated to be between 60,000<ref name=encyclo /> and 100,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1 = Daugherty, C. |author2 = Keall, S. |title = Tuatara islands |encyclopedia = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand  |url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/FishFrogsAndReptiles/Tuatara/2/en}}</ref>

==== Climate change ====
Tuatara have temperature-dependent sex determination meaning that the temperature of the egg determines the sex of the animal. For tuatara, lower egg incubation temperatures lead to females while higher temperatures lead to males. Since global temperatures are increasing, climate change may be skewing the male to female ratio of tuatara. Current solutions to this potential future threat are the selective removal of adults and the incubation of eggs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-06 |title=A Threat to New Zealand's Tuatara Heats Up |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/a-threat-to-new-zealands-tuatara-heats-up |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=American Scientist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoare |first1=J. M. |last2=Pledger |first2=S. |last3=Keall |first3=S. N. |last4=Nelson |first4=N. J. |last5=Mitchell |first5=N. J. |last6=Daugherty |first6=C. H. |title=Conservation implications of a long-term decline in body condition of the Brothers Island tuatara ( Sphenodon guntheri ) |journal=Animal Conservation |date=November 2006 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=456–462 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00061.x|bibcode=2006AnCon...9..456H |s2cid=86412390 }}</ref>

===Eradication of rats===
Tuatara were removed from [[Stanley Island, New Zealand|Stanley]], [[Red Mercury Island|Red Mercury]] and [[Cuvier Island]]s in 1990 and 1991, and maintained in captivity to allow Polynesian rats to be eradicated on those islands. All three populations bred in captivity, and after successful eradication of the rats, all individuals, including the new juveniles, were returned to their islands of origin. In the 1991–92 season, [[Little Barrier Island]] was found to hold only eight tuatara, which were taken into ''[[in situ conservation|in situ]]'' captivity, where females produced 42 eggs, which were incubated at Victoria University. The resulting offspring were subsequently held in an enclosure on the island, then released into the wild in 2006 after rats were eradicated there.<ref>{{cite report |title=Fauna on Little Barrier Island |department=Department of Conservation |publisher=Government of New Zealand |url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-visit/auckland/hauraki-gulf-islands/little-barrier-island-nature-reserve-hauturu-o-toi/features/#fauna |access-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329040539/http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-visit/auckland/hauraki-gulf-islands/little-barrier-island-nature-reserve-hauturu-o-toi/features/#fauna |archive-date=29 March 2014}}</ref>

In the [[Hen and Chicken Islands]], Polynesian rats were eradicated on Whatupuke in 1993, Lady Alice Island in 1994, and Coppermine Island in 1997. Following this program, juveniles have once again been seen on the latter three islands. In contrast, rats persist on Hen Island of the same group, and no juvenile tuatara have been seen there as of 2001. In the [[Alderman Islands]], Middle Chain Island holds no tuatara, but it is considered possible for rats to swim between Middle Chain and other islands that do hold tuatara, and the rats were eradicated in 1992 to prevent this.<ref name=recovery/> Another rodent eradication was carried out on the Rangitoto Islands east of [[D'Urville Island]], to prepare for the release of 432&nbsp;Cook Strait tuatara juveniles in 2004, which were being raised at Victoria University as of 2001.<ref name=recovery /><!--can we find out whether this plan was followed through?-->

====Brothers Island tuatara====
''Sphenodon punctatus guntheri'' is present naturally on one small island with a population of approximately 400. In 1995, 50&nbsp;juvenile and 18&nbsp;adult Brothers Island tuatara were moved to Titi Island in [[Cook Strait]], and their establishment monitored. Two years later, more than half of the animals had been seen again and of those all but one had gained weight. In 1998, 34&nbsp;juveniles from captive breeding and 20&nbsp;wild-caught adults were similarly transferred to [[Matiu/Somes Island]], a more publicly accessible location in Wellington Harbour. The captive juveniles were from induced layings from wild females.<ref name=recovery />

In late October&nbsp;2007, 50&nbsp;tuatara collected as eggs from North Brother Island and hatched at [[Victoria University of Wellington|Victoria University]] were being released onto [[Long Island, Marlborough|Long Island]] in the outer [[Marlborough Sounds]]. The animals had been cared for at Wellington Zoo for the previous five years and had been kept in secret in a specially built enclosure at the zoo, off display.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Rare tuatara raised at Wellington Zoo | publisher = [[Wellington Zoo]] | date = 29 October 2007 | url = http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC0710/S00061.htm |access-date =19 April 2008}}</ref>

There is another out of country population of Brothers Island tuatara that was given to the [[San Diego Zoological Society]] and is housed off-display at the [[San Diego Zoo]] facility in Balboa.<ref>{{cite news |series=Reptiles |title=Tuatara |department=At the Zoo |publisher = San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance |url=http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/tuatara |access-date=11 May 2014}}</ref> No successful reproductive efforts have been reported yet.

====Northern tuatara====
[[File:Tuatara karori head.jpg|thumb|upright|Tuatara at the [[Karori Wildlife Sanctuary|Karori Sanctuary]] are given coloured markings on the head for identification.]]
''S.&nbsp;punctatus punctatus'' naturally occurs on 29&nbsp;islands, and its population is estimated to be over 60,000&nbsp;individuals.<ref name=encyclo/> In 1996, 32&nbsp;adult northern tuatara were moved from [[Moutoki Island]] to [[Moutohora Island|Moutohora]]. The carrying capacity of Moutohora is estimated at 8,500&nbsp;individuals, and the island could allow public viewing of wild tuatara.<ref name=recovery/> In 2003, 60&nbsp;northern tuatara were introduced to [[Tiritiri Matangi Island]] from Middle Island in the [[Mercury Islands|Mercury group]]. They are occasionally seen sunbathing by visitors to the island.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/getting-involved/students-and-teachers/field-trips-by-region/tiri-education-kit/15-part-4-reptiles-167-174.pdf | title = Translocated reptiles |volume = Part 4: Reptiles | work = Tiritiri Matangi: An education resource for schools | publisher = Department of Conservation, Government of New Zealand }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Tiritiri Matangi Island field trip | url = http://www.doc.govt.nz/getting-involved/for-teachers/field-trip-resources/field-trips-by-region/auckland/tiritiri-matangi-island/teaching-resource/ | work = Tiritiri Matangi – An education resource for schools | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140329033704/http://www.doc.govt.nz/getting-involved/for-teachers/field-trip-resources/field-trips-by-region/auckland/tiritiri-matangi-island/teaching-resource/ | archive-date = 29 March 2014 | publisher = Department of Conservation, Government of New Zealand | date = November 2007}}</ref>

A mainland release of ''S.p.&nbsp;punctatus'' occurred in 2005 in the heavily fenced and monitored [[Karori Wildlife Sanctuary|Karori Sanctuary]].<ref name="karori"/> The second mainland release took place in October&nbsp;2007, when a further 130 were transferred from [[Stephens Island, New Zealand|Stephens Island]] to the Karori Sanctuary.<ref>{{cite news |title=130&nbsp;tuatara find sanctuary |date=20 October 2007 |newspaper=[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]] |place=Wellington, NZ |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4243952a7693.html |access-date=19 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210145408/https://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4243952a7693.html |archive-date=10 December 2008}}</ref> In early 2009, the first recorded wild-born offspring were observed.<ref>{{cite news |author = Easton, P. |date=20 March 2009  |title=Life will be wild for new boy |newspaper=[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]] |place=Wellington, NZ |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/2278328/Life-will-be-wild-for-new-boy/ |access-date=20 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614014223/http://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/2278328/Life-will-be-wild-for-new-boy/ |archive-date = 14 June 2009}}</ref>

===Captive breeding===
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2022}}
The first successful breeding of tuatara in captivity is believed to have achieved by Sir [[Algernon Thomas]] at either his University offices or residence in Symonds Street in the late 1880s or his new home, Trewithiel, in Mount Eden in the early 1890s.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Several tuatara breeding programmes are active in New Zealand. [[southland museum and art gallery|Southland Museum and Art Gallery]] in [[Invercargill]] was the first institution to have a tuatara breeding programme; starting in 1986 they bred ''S.&nbsp;punctatus'' and have focused on ''S.&nbsp;guntheri'' more recently.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lutz |first1=Richard L. |title=Tuatara: a living fossil |date=2006 |publisher=Dimi Press |location=Salem, OR |page=53 |url=https://worldcat.org/en/title/57434219 |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref>

[[Hamilton Zoo]], [[Auckland Zoo]] and [[Wellington Zoo]] also breed tuatara for release into the wild. At Auckland Zoo in the 1990s it was discovered that tuatara have [[temperature-dependent sex determination]].
The [[Victoria University of Wellington]] maintains a research programme into the captive breeding of tuatara, and the [[Pūkaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre]] keeps a pair and a juvenile.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

The WildNZ Trust has a tuatara breeding enclosure at [[Ruawai]]. One notable captive breeding success story took place in January&nbsp;2009, when all 11 eggs belonging to 110&nbsp;year-old tuatara [[Henry (tuatara)|Henry]] and 80&nbsp;year-old tuatara Mildred hatched. This story is especially remarkable as Henry required surgery to remove a cancerous tumour in order to successfully breed.<ref name="CNNDad"/>

In January 2016, [[Chester Zoo]], England, announced that they succeeded in breeding the tuatara in captivity for the first time outside its homeland.<ref>{{cite news |author = Connor, S. |date=31 January 2016 |title=Tuatara: Lizard-like reptile takes 38&nbsp;years to lay an egg in Chester Zoo |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/tuatura-lizard-like-reptile-takes-38-years-to-lay-an-egg-in-chester-zoo-a6844041.html |access-date=31 January 2016}}</ref>