Editing Tiberius (section)

==Legacy==
=== Historiography ===
[[File:Statua di tiberio da priverno, post 37 dc..JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of Tiberius from [[Priverno]], made shortly after AD 37, now in the [[Museo Chiaramonti]] of the [[Vatican Museums]]]]

Had he died before AD&nbsp;23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#6|IV.6]]}} Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterisation left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial [[treasury]] with nearly 3 billion ''[[sesterces]]'' upon his death.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#1 LIX.1]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Caligula''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#37 37]}} Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=37}} The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire, ensuring the imperial institutions introduced by his adoptive father would remain for centuries to come.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius|title=Tiberius &#124; Biography, Accomplishments, Facts, & Death|date=30 June 2023 }}</ref>

Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]]. Fragmentary evidence also remains from [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Strabo]] and [[Seneca the Elder]]. [[Philo of Alexandria]] speaks briefly of Tiberius's reign in [[Philo#Embassy to Gaius|Embassy to Gaius]]. Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=61}}

==== Publius Cornelius Tacitus ====
{{See also|Tacitus}}

The most detailed account of this period was written by [[Tacitus]], whose ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign of [[Nero]] in AD 56, and ''[[consul suffectus]]'' in AD 97. His text is largely based on the ''[[Acta Senatus]]'' (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the ''[[Acta Diurna]]'' (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such as [[Marcus Cluvius Rufus]], [[Fabius Rusticus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] (all of which are lost). Tacitus's narrative emphasises both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son [[Drusus Julius Caesar|Drusus]] in AD 23.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#6|IV.6]]}}

Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal";{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#6|I.6]]}} he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}}
Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, corruption, and the growing [[tyranny]] among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the ''maiestas'' law under Augustus.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#72|I.72]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#74|I.74]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#27|II.27–32]], [[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#49|III.49–51]], [[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#66|III.66–69]]}} Ultimately, Tacitus's opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book:

{{blockquote|His character too had its distinct periods. It was a bright time in his life and reputation, while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue, as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his mother lived, he was a compound of good and evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace, when fear and shame being cast off, he simply indulged his own inclinations.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}}}}

==== Suetonius Tranquillus ====
[[File:Silver denarius of Tiberius 14CE 37CE found in India Indian copy of a the same 1st century CE Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An example of [[Indo-Roman trade and relations]] during the period: silver denarius of Tiberius (14–37) found in India and Indian copy of the same, 1st-century coin of [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] king [[Kujula Kadphises]] copying a coin of [[Augustus]].]]

[[Suetonius]] was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of [[Trajan]] and [[Hadrian]]. ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'' details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of [[Julius Caesar]] to the death of [[Domitian]] in AD&nbsp;96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by [[Aufidius Bassus]], [[Marcus Cluvius Rufus]], [[Fabius Rusticus]] and Augustus's own letters.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=43, 44, 45}}

His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary Tacitus, and delves into Tiberius's numerous alleged debaucheries while at Capri.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=43, 44, 45}} Nevertheless, Suetonius praises Tiberius's actions during his early reign, emphasising his modesty.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=26–32}}

==== Velleius Paterculus ====
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from [[Velleius Paterculus]], who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD&nbsp;4) in Germany and Pannonia as ''[[praefect]]'' of cavalry and ''legatus''. Paterculus' ''Compendium of Roman History'' spans a period from the fall of [[Troy]] to the death of [[Livia]] in AD&nbsp;29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.94, 103–105, 129–130}} and Sejanus.{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.127–128}} How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD&nbsp;31 as a friend of Sejanus.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Syme | first = Ronald | title = Seianus on the Aventine | journal = Hermes | volume = 84 | issue = 3 | pages = 257–266 | year = 1956 | publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag | jstor = 4474933 }}</ref>

=== Gospels, Jews, and Christians ===
[[File:Emperor Tiberius Denarius - Tribute Penny.jpg|thumb|300px|The ''[[tribute penny]]'' mentioned in the Bible is commonly believed to be a Roman [[denarius]] depicting the emperor Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF.]]

According to the [[Gospel]]s, [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]] preached and was executed during the reign of Tiberius, by the authority of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea province]]. ''[[Luke 3]]:1'',<ref>{{bibleref|Luke|3:1}}</ref> states that [[John the Baptist]] entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of Tiberius's reign. The city of [[Tiberias]], on the Western shore of the [[Sea of Galilee]] (also known as the ''Sea of Tiberias'') was named thus by [[Herod Antipas]] in Tiberius's honour.{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Antiquities'' [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 2|XVIII.2.3]]}} It is referred to in ''[[John 6]]:23''<ref>{{bibleref|John|6:23}}</ref> and ''John 6:1''.<ref>{{bibleref|John|6:1}}</ref> The so-called "[[tribute penny]]" referred to in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|22:19}}</ref> and the [[Gospel of Mark]]<ref>{{bibleref|Mark|12:15}}</ref> is popularly thought to be a silver ''[[denarius]]'' coin of Tiberius.<ref>{{cite book
| last = [[Sir William Smith]]
| title = The Old Testament History: From The Creation To The Return Of The Jews From Captivity |page =704
| publisher = [[Kessinger Publishing]], LLC |year=2010
| orig-year = 1896
| isbn = 978-1-162-09864-7
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = The Numismatist, Volume 29 |page= 536
| publisher = [[American Numismatic Association]]
| date = April 2010
| isbn = 978-1-148-52633-1
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Hobson
| first = Burton
| title = Coins and coin collecting |page =28
| publisher = [[Dover Publications]]
| date = April 1972
| isbn = 0-486-22763-4
}}</ref>

During Tiberius's reign, Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began [[proselytising]] Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments.<ref name="Jossa">{{cite book|last=Jossa|first=Giorgio|title=Jews or Christians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlBXVPnGxVkC&q=Jews+or+Christians%3F|year=2006|pages=123–126|publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=3-16-149192-0}}</ref> In AD 19 Tiberius ordered Jews of military age to join the Roman Army.<ref name="Jossa" /> He banished the rest of Rome's Jewish population, on pain of enslavement for life. [[Josephus]] credits the banishment to a quartet of Jewish con artists – one of whom had fled prosecution in Judea for financial crimes – who successfully conspired to [[scam]] a Roman Matron out of a large quantity of money, silk, and gold, ostensibly to be sent for dedication in the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-18.html|title=Antiquities of the Jews - Book XVIII}}</ref><ref name="Jossa" />

There were no systematic Roman persecutions of Christians under Tiberius after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Christ's crucifixion]].<ref name="Ed RICHARDSON">{{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Ed |editor1-last=Donfried |editor1-first=Karl P. |editor2-last=Richardson |editor2-first=Peter |title=Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome |date=1998 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=9780802842657 |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATkvlPyonAkC&pg=PA205}}</ref> Jossa finds it "unthinkable" that Tiberius was aware of Christianity as a faith separate from Judaism.<ref name="Jossa" /> Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians began in the 40s, in Caligula's reign, and was complete by around AD 70 (the destruction of Jerusalem).<ref name="Jossa" />
[[File:Tiberio 14 - 37dC jpg.jpg|thumb|300px|Extent of the Roman Empire under Tiberius]]
The early Christian Church's view of Tiberius has generally been favourable. The 2nd-3rd Century Christian [[apologist]] [[Tertullian]] said Tiberius approached the Senate with a request to acknowledge Christ as a [[deity]], citing evidence of his [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], and his resurrection following his crucifixion. Early Church historian [[Eusebius]] said [[Pilate]] reported to Tiberius of the resurrection of Christ. Tiberius is said to have taken Pilate's report to the Senate.{{sfn|Williamson|1965|p=75}} Tiberius had to be content with the protection of Christians from malicious prosecution by senators; [[St. Jerome]] adds that this was under the penalty of death. Both he and [[Eusebius]] included Tertullian's account in their respective histories of the Christian Church, but no evidence of such protection survives in Roman law. Crake describes the episode as essentially a comment on deification by decree of the senate", in which few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events"<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last=Crake |first=J. E. A. |date=1965 |title=Early Christians and Roman Law |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1086690 |journal=Phoenix |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=61–70 |doi=10.2307/1086690 |jstor=1086690 |issn=0031-8299}}</ref>{{efn|The 20th-century Canadian historian J.E.A. Crake (1911–1983) said in 1963 at an annual meeting of the Classical Association of Canada that few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events" and that its "combination of legal inconsistency would have inspired a couple of pages of sarcasm from Tertullian."<ref name="doi.org"/>}}<ref>For review of sources on the early Church and Christianity in relation to Roman power-politics, see Barnes, T.D. (November 1968), ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Volume 58, Issue 1-2,  pp. 32–50 {{doi|10.2307/299693}}</ref> Translator [[G.A. Williamson]] said it "can be hardly doubted that Pilate sent such a report, but none of the extant versions is regarded as genuine."{{sfn|Williamson|1965|p=75}} The [[Christian History Institute]] does not list Tiberius as a [[Roman emperor]] who persecuted Christians. The first Roman emperor listed is [[Claudius]].<ref name=Christian>{{cite web|title=Persecution in the Early Church: A Gallery of the Persecuting Emperors|url=https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/persecution-in-early-church-gallery |publisher=Christian History Institute |ref=Christian History Institute |accessdate=March 21, 2022}}</ref>{{efn|According to the [[Christian History Institute]] from "A.D. 30 to A.D. 311, a period in which 54 emperors ruled the Empire, only about a dozen took the trouble to harass Christians. Furthermore, not until Decius (249–251) did any deliberately attempt an Empire-wide persecution. Until then, persecution came mainly at the instigation of local rulers, albeit with Rome's approval."<ref name=Christian/>}}

=== Archaeology ===
[[File:SperlongaVillaTiberio.jpg|thumb|232x232px|Remnants of Tiberius's villa at [[Sperlonga]], on the coast midway between Rome and Naples|left]]
Possible traces remain of renovations by Tiberius in the [[Gardens of Maecenas]], where he lived upon returning from exile in AD 2.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=15}} These persist inside the villa's likely ''[[triclinium]]''-''[[nymphaeum]]'', the so-called [[Auditorium of Maecenas]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Häuber |first1=Chrystina |title=The Horti of Maecenas on the Esquiline Hill in Rome |url=http://www.rom.geographie.uni-muenchen.de/texts/hm_text1.pdf |access-date=21 December 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222443/http://www.rom.geographie.uni-muenchen.de/texts/hm_text1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In an otherwise Late [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era building, identifiable as such by its brickwork and flooring, the [[Dionysian Mysteries|Dionysian]]-themed landscape and nature frescoes lining the walls are reminiscent of the illusionistic early Imperial paintings [[Villa of Livia#Garden room fresco|in his mother's own subterranean dining room]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wyler |first1=Stéphanie |chapter=An Augustan Trend towards Dionysos: Around the ‘Auditorium of Maecenas' |editor1-last=Bernabe |editor1-first=Alberto |editor2-last=Herrero de Jáuregui |editor2-first=Miguel |editor3-last=San Cristóbal |editor3-first=Ana |editor4-last=Martín Hernández |editor4-first=Raquel |title=Redefining Dionysos|pages=541–553|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|date=2013|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/es/4979106/An_Augustan_trend_towards_Dionysos_around_the_Auditorium_of_Mecenas_}}</ref>

Tiberius's palace in Rome was on the [[Palatine Hill]]; its ruins still stand. Tiberius built a temple in Rome to the deified Augustus, and restored the [[theatre of Pompey]],{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#45|IV.45]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#72|III.72]]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#47 47]}} these works were not finished until the reign of Caligula.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Caligula''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#21 21]}} The remains of Tiberius's villa at [[Sperlonga]] include a [[grotto]], where the fragmentary [[Sperlonga sculptures]] were found. The hill-top ''[[Villa Jovis]]'' retreat at [[Capri]] has been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#67|IV.67]]}} of which the ''Villa Jovis'' was the largest.

Tiberius refused to be officially worshipped as a living god. He promoted restraint in the official, empire-wide cult to the divinised Augustus, and established a priesthood, the ''[[Sodales Augustales]]'', to administer its rites. He allowed a single temple to honour both his own [[Genius (mythology)|''genius'']] and that of the Senate, at [[Smyrna]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gradel |first=Ittai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBNREAAAQBAJ |title=Emperor Worship and Roman Religion |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-154149-0 |pages=15, 263–268: Gradel points out that no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor}}</ref>{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#37|IV.37–38]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#55|IV.55–56]]}}

=== Popular culture ===
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. The following is a list of appearances Tiberius made in popular culture.

* He appears in the 1934 novel ''[[I, Claudius]]'' by [[Robert Graves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.booktalk.org/i-claudius.php |title=''I, Claudius'': From the Autobiography of Tiberius Claudius – Robert Graves|publisher=Booktalk.org |access-date=2008-09-20 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080618094451/http://www.booktalk.org/i-claudius.php |archive-date = 18 June 2008}}</ref> and the consequent [[BBC]] [[I, Claudius (TV series)|television series]] adaptation, where he is portrayed by [[George Baker (British actor)|George Baker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/cinema/features/iclaudius.shtml |title=BBC Four Drama – ''I, Claudius'' |publisher=BBC |access-date=2008-09-20}}</ref>
* [[George R. R. Martin]], the author of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series, has stated that central character [[Stannis Baratheon]] is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grrm.livejournal.com/310379.html?thread=17203563 |title=Not a Blog: It's the Pits|date=2013-01-21|access-date=2016-12-27}}</ref>
* In the 1968 [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] historical drama ''[[The Caesars (TV series)|The Caesars]]'', Tiberius (by [[André Morell]]) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in ''I, Claudius''.
* He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film [[The Inquiry (2006 film)|''The Inquiry'']], in which he is played by [[Max von Sydow]]. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' (played by [[George Relph]] in his last starring role),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/character/ch0017920/ |title=Emperor Tiberius Caesar (Character) |publisher=Imdb.com |access-date=2008-09-20}}</ref> and in ''[[A.D. (miniseries)|A.D.]]'' (played by [[James Mason]]).
* He was featured in ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'' (1953), played by [[Ernest Thesiger]].
* He was featured in the 1979 film [[Caligula (film)|''Caligula'']], portrayed by [[Peter O'Toole]].
* He was an important character in [[Taylor Caldwell]]'s 1958 novel, ''[[Dear and Glorious Physician]]'', a biography of St [[Luke the Evangelist]], author of the third canonical Gospel.
* He was played by [[Kenneth Cranham]] in the 2015 TV series ''[[A.D. The Bible Continues]].''
* In the TV series ''[[Roman Empire (TV series)|Roman Empire]]'', Tiberius was portrayed by Craig Walsh-Wrightson. In the 2021 TV series ''[[Domina (TV series)|Domina]]'', he was played by [[Earl Cave]].
* The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in [[Arthur Machen]]'s 1895 novel ''[[The Three Impostors]]''.