Editing Supercomputer (section)

==Development and trends==
[[File:Supercomputer Share Top500 November2015.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Distribution of TOP500 supercomputers among different countries, in November 2015]]
In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1&nbsp;[[Exascale computing|exaFLOP]] (10<sup>18</sup> or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2018/02/eu-1-2-supercomputer-project-to-several-10-100-petaflop-computers-by-2020-and-exaflop-by-2022.html|title=EU $1.2 supercomputer project to several 10-100 PetaFLOP computers by 2020 and exaFLOP by 2022 {{!}} NextBigFuture.com|date=4 February 2018|work=NextBigFuture.com|access-date=21 May 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> Erik P. DeBenedictis of [[Sandia National Laboratories]] has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (10<sup>21</sup> or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full [[Weather forecasting|weather modeling]], which could cover a two-week time span accurately.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DeBenedictis |first1=Erik P. |title=The Path To Extreme Computing |url=http://www.zettaflops.org/PES/0-Organization-DeBenedictis.pdf |website=Zettaflops |publisher=Sandia National Laboratories |access-date=9 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803175503/http://www.zettaflops.org/PES/0-Organization-DeBenedictis.pdf |archive-date=3 August 2007 |date=2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Cohen|first1=Reuven|title=Global Bitcoin Computing Power Now 256 Times Faster Than Top 500 Supercomputers, Combined!|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/reuvencohen/2013/11/28/global-bitcoin-computing-power-now-256-times-faster-than-top-500-supercomputers-combined/#660eb2ff6e5e|magazine=Forbes|date=28 November 2013|access-date=1 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Reversible logic for supercomputing |title=Proceedings of the 2nd conference on Computing frontiers |last=DeBenedictis |first=Erik P. |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59593-019-4 |pages=391–402 |publisher=ACM Press |chapter-url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1062325 }}</ref> Such systems might be built around 2030.<ref>{{cite news |title=IDF: Intel says Moore's Law holds until 2029 |url=http://www.h-online.com/newsticker/news/item/IDF-Intel-says-Moore-s-Law-holds-until-2029-734779.html |work=Heise Online |date=4 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208075357/http://www.h-online.com/newsticker/news/item/IDF-Intel-says-Moore-s-Law-holds-until-2029-734779.html |archive-date=8 December 2013  }}</ref>

Many [[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo simulations]] use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data set; particularly, [[integro-differential equation]]s describing [[Transport phenomena|physical transport processes]], the [[Random walk|random paths]], collisions, and energy and momentum depositions of neutrons, photons, ions, electrons, etc. {{Anchor|dimension2016-01-29}}The next step for microprocessors may be into the [[Three-dimensional integrated circuit|third dimension]]; and specializing to Monte Carlo, the many layers could be identical, simplifying the design and manufacture process.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solem|first=J. C.|title=Monte-Carlo Methods and Applications in Neutronics, Photonics and Statistical Physics |chapter=MECA: A multiprocessor concept specialized to Monte Carlo |year=1985|publisher=Proceedings of the Joint los Alamos National Laboratory – Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique Meeting Held at Cadarache Castle, Provence, France 22–26 April 1985; Monte-Carlo Methods and Applications in Neutronics, Photonics and Statistical Physics, Alcouffe, R.; Dautray, R.; Forster, A.; Forster, G.; Mercier, B.; Eds. (Springer Verlag, Berlin) |volume=240|pages=184–195|doi=10.1007/BFb0049047|series=Lecture Notes in Physics|bibcode=1985LNP...240..184S|osti=5689714 |isbn=978-3-540-16070-0|chapter-url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1089522/}}</ref>

The cost of operating high performance supercomputers has risen, mainly due to increasing power consumption. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer required in the range of 100&nbsp;kilowatts, in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required between 1 and 2&nbsp;megawatts.<ref name=18thMPI>{{cite book |title=Recent Advances in the Message Passing Interface: 18th European MPI Users' Group Meeting, EuroMPI 2011, Santorini, Greece, September 18-21, 2011. Proceedings |author1=Yiannis Cotronis |author2=Anthony Danalis |author3=Dimitris Nikolopoulos |author4=Jack Dongarra |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9783642244483 |year=2011 }}</ref> A 2010 study commissioned by [[DARPA]] identified power consumption as the most pervasive challenge in achieving [[Exascale computing]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning |url=https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij |url-access=limited |author1=James H. Laros III |author2=Kevin Pedretti |author3=Suzanne M. Kelly |author4=Wei Shu |author5=Kurt Ferreira |author6=John Van Dyke |author7=Courtenay Vaughan |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781447144922 |year=2012| page=[https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij/page/n9 1]}}</ref> At the time a megawatt per year in energy consumption cost about 1&nbsp;million dollars. Supercomputing facilities were constructed to efficiently remove the increasing amount of heat produced by modern multi-core [[central processing unit]]s. Based on the energy consumption of the Green 500 list of supercomputers between 2007 and 2011, a supercomputer with 1&nbsp;exaFLOPS in 2011 would have required nearly 500&nbsp;megawatts. Operating systems were developed for existing hardware to conserve energy whenever possible.<ref>{{cite book |title=Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning |url=https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij |url-access=limited |author1=James H. Laros III |author2=Kevin Pedretti |author3=Suzanne M. Kelly |author4=Wei Shu |author5=Kurt Ferreira |author6=John Van Dyke |author7=Courtenay Vaughan |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781447144922 |year=2012| page=[https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij/page/n12 2]}}</ref> CPU cores not in use during the execution of a parallelized application were put into low-power states, producing energy savings for some supercomputing applications.<ref>{{cite book |title=Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning |url=https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij |url-access=limited |author1=James H. Laros III |author2=Kevin Pedretti |author3=Suzanne M. Kelly |author4=Wei Shu |author5=Kurt Ferreira |author6=John Van Dyke |author7=Courtenay Vaughan |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781447144922 |year=2012| page=[https://archive.org/details/energyefficienth00iiij/page/n13 3]}}</ref>

The increasing cost of operating supercomputers has been a driving factor in a trend toward bundling of resources through a distributed supercomputer infrastructure. National supercomputing centers first emerged in the US, followed by Germany and Japan. The European Union launched the [[Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe]] (PRACE) with the aim of creating a persistent pan-European supercomputer infrastructure with services to support scientists across the [[European Union]] in porting, scaling and optimizing supercomputing applications.<ref name=18thMPI/> Iceland built the world's first zero-emission supercomputer. Located at the Thor Data Center in [[Reykjavík]], Iceland, this supercomputer relies on completely renewable sources for its power rather than fossil fuels. The colder climate also reduces the need for active cooling, making it one of the greenest facilities in the world of computers.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.intelfreepress.com/news/green-supercomputer-crunches-big-data-in-iceland/39/|title = Green Supercomputer Crunches Big Data in Iceland|date = 21 May 2015|access-date = 18 May 2015|website = intelfreepress.com|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150520034755/http://www.intelfreepress.com/news/green-supercomputer-crunches-big-data-in-iceland/39/|archive-date = 20 May 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

Funding supercomputer hardware also became increasingly difficult. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer cost about 10&nbsp;million euros, while in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required an investment of between 40 and 50&nbsp;million euros.<ref name=18thMPI/> In the 2000s national governments put in place different strategies to fund supercomputers. In the UK the national government funded supercomputers entirely and high performance computing was put under the control of a national funding agency. Germany developed a mixed funding model, pooling local state funding and federal funding.<ref name=18thMPI/>