Editing Southeast Asia (section)

==Geography==
{{See also|Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|List of Southeast Asian mountains|Southeast Asian Massif}}

[[File:Southeast asia.svg|thumb|Relief map of Southeast Asia]]

Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]). Geologically, the [[list of islands of Indonesia|Indonesian Archipelago]] is one of the most [[volcanology|volcanically]] active regions in the world. Geological [[Tectonic uplift|uplifts]] in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in [[Puncak Jaya]] in [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], Indonesia at {{convert|5030.|m|ft|abbr=off}}, on the island of [[New Guinea]]; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is [[Hkakabo Razi]] at {{convert|5967.|m|ft|abbr=off}} and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, [[Mount Everest]].

The [[South China Sea]] is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea.

[[Mayon Volcano]], despite being dangerously [[list of active volcanoes in the Philippines|active]], holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous [[types of volcanic eruptions|eruption]].<ref name="Davis">Davis, Lee (1992). Natural disasters: from the Black Plague to the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. New York, NY: Facts on File Inc.. pp. 300–301.</ref>

===Boundaries===
{{Further|Boundaries between the continents of Earth}}

Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continent]], the boundary between these two regions is most often considered to run through [[Wallacea]].<!--

[[Halmahera]], [[Seram]], [[Kai Islands]], [[Tanimbar Islands]] and [[Timor]] on the Asian side.

[[New Guinea]], the [[Aru Islands]] and [[Raja Ampat Islands]] on the Australian side.

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[[File:OutlineWorldMap-Ekert4WinkelTripel-Meridian127-EastHemisphere.svg|thumb|World Map in outline centred on Southeast Asia, [[Pacific Asia]], [[Melanesia]] and [[Australia]].]]
Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and the [[regions of Indonesia|Indonesian region]] of [[Western New Guinea]] (Papua and [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]]). Both countries share the island of [[New Guinea]].

Islands to the east of the Philippines make up the region of [[Micronesia]]. These islands are not biogeographically, geologically or historically linked to mainland Asia, and are considered part of Oceania by the [[United Nations]], ''[[The World Factbook]]'', and other organisations.<ref name="stats">{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |title=Methodology: Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49) |website=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]}}</ref> The Oceania region is politically represented through the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], a governing body which, up until 2022, included Australia, [[New Zealand]] and all independent territories in [[Melanesia]], Micronesia, and [[Polynesia]]. Several countries of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forumsec.org/who-we-arepacific-islands-forum/|title=The Pacific Islands Forum – Forum Sec}}</ref>

Maritime Southeast Asia was often grouped with Australia and Oceania in the mid to late 1800s, rather than with mainland Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären E. |quote=As is explained in note 71 (this chapter), insular Southeast Asia was often grouped with Oceania instead of with Asia in the middle and late 1800s.| title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |date=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=223 |isbn=9780520207424 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLT8X5E3bZIC&dq=%22oceania%22+%22malay+archipelago%22+excluded&pg=PA223 |access-date=4 June 2022}}</ref> The term Oceania came into usage at the beginning of the 1800s, and the earlier definitions predated the advent of concepts such as Wallacea.

The non-continental Australian external territories of [[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] are sometimes considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia, as they lie in much closer proximity to western Indonesia than they do to mainland Australia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=M. Athyal |first1=Jesudas |title=Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=40 |isbn=9781610692502 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22christmas+island%22+%22in+southeast+asia%22&pg=PA40 |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/christmas-island-australias-gem-in-the-indian-ocean/|title=Christmas Island – Australia's Gem In The Indian Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|title=Christmas and Cocos Keeling Islands Birding Guide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819191359/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/pub/bird-brochure.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> They have a [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] mix of inhabitants with Asian and [[European Australian]] ancestry, and were uninhabited when discovered by the British during the 17th century.<ref name="gov">{{cite web|url=https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/api/records/a05f7892-8f70-7506-e044-00144fdd4fa6|title=BMR Cruise 107: Seabed Morphology and Offshore Resources around Christmas Island, Indian Ocean|website=Product catalogue}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305182602/https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/scientific-publications/archive/conservation-christmas-cocos.pdf |url-status=live |title=Conservation values in Commonwealth waters of the Christmas and Cocos (Keeling) Island remote Australian territories |archive-date=5 March 2021 |publisher=CSIRO |date=August 2009 |access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref> The islands lie within the bounds of the [[Australian Plate]], and are defined by ''The World Factbook'' as the westernmost extent of Oceania.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cocos-keeling-islands/ |title=Cocos (Keeling) Islands - The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |date=24 June 2022 |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/christmas-island/|title=Christmas Island|date=24 June 2022|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov}}</ref> The United Nations also include these islands in their definition of Oceania, under the same subregion as Australia and New Zealand.<ref name="stats"/>

===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Southeastern Asia 1991–2020.svg|thumb|Southeast Asia map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]]

Most of Southeast Asia have a [[tropical climate]] that is hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shifts in winds or [[monsoon]]s. The [[tropical rain belt]] causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rainforest is the second largest on Earth (with the [[Amazon rainforest]] being the largest). Exceptions to the typical tropical climate and forest vegetation are:
# Places such as [[Northern Vietnam]] with a [[subtropical climate]] that is sometimes influenced by [[cold waves]] which move from the northeast and the [[Siberian High]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worlddata.info/asia/vietnam/climate.php |title=Vietnam Climate |website=WorldData.info |access-date=2023-11-24}}</ref>
## the northern part of Central Vietnam also is occasionally influenced by cold waves
# mountain areas in the northern region and the higher islands, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures
# the [[Dry Zone (Myanmar)|“dry zone”]] of central Myanmar in the [[rain shadow]] of the [[Arakan Mountains]], where annual rainfall can be as low as {{convert|600|mm|in|0|disp=or}}, which under the hot temperatures that prevail is dry enough to qualify as [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]. 
# Southern areas in [[South Central Coast]] of Vietnam is marked with hot [[semi-arid climate]] due to weak monsoon activities and high temperature throughout the year. Annual rainfall of this region varies between {{convert|400|mm|in|0|disp=or}} to {{convert|800|mm|in|0|disp=or}}, with an 8-month dry season. 

==== Climate change ====
{{Main|Climate change in Asia}}
[[File:Cheung 2023 fishery projections.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Under the highest-emission scenario, Southeast Asian countries would see substantial reductions in seafood available from their [[exclusive economic zone]]s by 2050<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=William W. L. |last2=Maire |first2=Eva |last3=Oyinlola |first3=Muhammed A. |last4=Robinson |first4=James P. W. |last5=Graham |first5=Nicholas A. J. |last6=Lam |first6=Vicky W. Y. |last7=MacNeil |first7=M. Aaron |last8=Hicks |first8=Christina C. |date=30 October 2023 |title=Climate change exacerbates nutrient disparities from seafood |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=1242–1249 |doi=10.1038/s41558-023-01822-1 |doi-access=free|pmid=37927330 |pmc=10624626 |bibcode=2023NatCC..13.1242C }}</ref> ]]
Southeast Asia lags behind on [[climate change mitigation|mitigation measures]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Overland |first1=Indra |last2=Sagbakken |first2=Haakon Fossum |last3=Chan |first3=Hoy-Yen |last4=Merdekawati |first4=Monika |last5=Suryadi |first5=Beni |last6=Utama |first6=Nuki Agya |last7=Vakulchuk |first7=Roman |title=The ASEAN climate and energy paradox |journal=Energy and Climate Change |date=December 2021 |volume=2 |page=100019 |doi=10.1016/j.egycc.2020.100019|issn=2666-2787 |hdl=11250/2734506 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> even though it is one of the most [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable]] regions to [[climate change]] in the world.<ref name="Overland2020">{{Cite book|last=Overland|first=Indra|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312|title=Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier|date=6 November 2017|access-date=6 January 2022|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728065717/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312_Impact_of_Climate_Change_on_ASEAN_International_Affairs_Risk_and_Opportunity_Multiplier|url-status=live}}</ref> Climate change has already caused an increase in ''heavy'' [[precipitation]] events (defined as 400&nbsp;mm or more in a day)<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter10" />{{rp|1464}} and greater increases are expected in this region. Changes in rainfall and runoff will also affect the quality of water supply used by the [[irrigation]] systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ifad.org/documents/10180/41587621-d96e-4aed-8b22-e714bcecd58e|title=Climate Change Impacts - South East Asia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829205837/https://www.ifad.org/documents/10180/41587621-d96e-4aed-8b22-e714bcecd58e|archive-date=29 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Under a high-warming scenario, heat-related deaths in the region could increase by 12.7% by 2100.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter10" />{{rp|1508}} Among the elderly in [[Malaysia]], annual heat-related deaths may go from less than 1 per 100,000 to 45 per 100,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/926013/retrieve |title=Climate and Health Country Profile – 2015 Malaysia |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2015 |access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref>{{rp|1}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/15868-WB_Malaysia%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf |title=Climate Risk Country Profile: Malaysia (2021) |author1=World Bank Group |author2=Asian Development Bank |date=2021 |access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref>{{rp|23}}

[[Sea level rise]] is a serious threat. Along Philippine coasts, it occurs three times faster than the global average,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ines |first=Jezreel |date=2023-07-04 |title=In troubled waters: Rising sea levels threaten sinking town's survival |url=https://www.rappler.com/environment/in-troubled-waters-rising-sea-levels-threaten-sinking-town-survival/ |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Rappler |language=en-US}}</ref> while 199 out of 514 cities and districts in [[Indonesia]] could be affected by tidal flooding by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-03 |title=Photos: Where once were mangroves, Javan villages struggle to beat back the sea |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2017/07/photos-where-once-were-mangroves-javan-villages-struggle-to-beat-back-the-sea/ |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Bangkok]], [[Ho Chi Minh City]] and [[Jakarta]] are amongst the 20 coastal cities which would have the world's highest annual flood losses in the year 2050.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter10" /> Due to [[land subsidence]], Jakarta is [[Flooding in Jakarta|sinking]] so much (up to {{cvt|28|cm|in|frac=2}} per year between 1982 and 2010 in some areas<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abidin |first1=Hasanuddin Z. |last2=Andreas |first2=Heri |last3=Gumilar |first3=Irwan |last4=Fukuda |first4=Yoichi |last5=Pohan |first5=Yusuf E. |last6=Deguchi |first6=T. |title=Land subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) and its relation with urban development |journal=Natural Hazards |date=11 June 2011 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=1753–1771 |doi=10.1007/s11069-011-9866-9 |bibcode=2011NatHa..59.1753A |s2cid=129557182 }}</ref>) that by 2019, the government had committed to relocate the [[capital of Indonesia]] to another city.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/05/03/seas-rise-indonesia-is-moving-its-capital-city-other-cities-should-take-note/|title=As seas rise, Indonesia is moving its capital city. Other cities should take note.|last=Englander|first=John|date=3 May 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=31 August 2019}}</ref>

Climate change is also likely to pose a serious threat to the region's fisheries:<ref name="Overland2020" /> 
3.35 million fishers in the Southeast Asia are reliant on [[coral reef]]s,<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter10" />{{rp|1479}} and yet those reefs are highly vulnerable to even low-emission climate change and will likely be lost if global warming exceeds {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}<ref name="ArmstrongMcKay2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong McKay |first1=David|last2=Abrams |first2=Jesse |last3=Winkelmann |first3=Ricarda |last4=Sakschewski |first4=Boris |last5=Loriani |first5=Sina |last6=Fetzer |first6=Ingo|last7=Cornell|first7=Sarah |last8=Rockström |first8=Johan |last9=Staal |first9=Arie |last10=Lenton |first10=Timothy |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7950 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6611 |pages=eabn7950 |doi=10.1126/science.abn7950 |pmid=36074831 |hdl=10871/131584 |s2cid=252161375 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="ArmstrongMcKayExplainer">{{Cite web |last=Armstrong McKay |first=David |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer |url=https://climatetippingpoints.info/2022/09/09/climate-tipping-points-reassessment-explainer/ |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=climatetippingpoints.info |language=en}}</ref> By 2050–2070, around 30% of the region's aquaculture area and 10-20% of aquaculture production may be lost.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter10">Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf Chapter 10: Asia]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012.</ref>{{rp|1491}}

[[File:Spreading ridges volcanoes map-en.svg|thumb|Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerial [[volcano]]es (mostly at convergent boundaries), with a high density of volcanoes situated in [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]].]]

===Environment===
{{See also|Southeast Asian coral reefs|Wallace Line}}
[[File:Komodo dragon at Komodo National Park.jpg|thumb|Komodo dragon in [[Komodo National Park]], [[Indonesia]]]]

The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterized as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]], the [[orangutan]], the [[Asian elephant]], the [[Malayan tapir]], the [[Sumatran rhinoceros]], and the [[Bornean clouded leopard]] can also be found. Six subspecies of the [[binturong]] or ''bearcat'' exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of [[Palawan]] is now classed as vulnerable.

[[File:The Mayon Volcano.jpg|thumb|The [[Mayon|Mayon Volcano]], Philippines]]

Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the [[Sumatran tiger]]), in peninsular Malaysia (the [[Malayan tiger]]), and in Indochina (the [[Indochinese tiger]]); all of which are endangered species.

The [[Komodo dragon]] is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands of [[Komodo (island)|Komodo]], [[Rinca]], [[Flores]], and [[Gili Motang]] in Indonesia.

[[File:Pithecophaga jefferyi.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Philippine eagle]]]]

The [[Philippine eagle]] is the [[national bird]] of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.haribon.org.ph/index.php?view=article&id=223:the-largest-eagle-in-the-world&option=com_content&Itemid=119 | date=13 December 2012 | title=Climate Reality Watch Party 2016 | access-date=15 May 2018 | archive-date=20 August 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820234906/http://www.haribon.org.ph/index.php?view=article&id=223%3Athe-largest-eagle-in-the-world&option=com_content&Itemid=119 | url-status=live }}</ref> and is endemic to the Philippines' forests.

The [[wild water buffalo]], and on various islands related dwarf species of ''[[Bubalus]]'' such as [[anoa]] were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the [[domestic Asian water buffalo]] is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.

The [[mouse deer]], a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia), and in Palawan (Philippines). The [[gaur]], a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.<ref>{{Cite book|page=68|title=Southeast Asian Biodiversity in Crisis|author=Navjot S. Sodhi|author2=Barry W. Brook|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-83930-3}}</ref>

Birds such as the [[green peafowl]] and [[drongo]] live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The [[babirusa]], a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The [[hornbill]] was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.

The [[List of islands of Indonesia|Indonesian Archipelago]] is split by the [[Wallace Line]]. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only a few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent [[soil erosion]] but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the [[Javan rhinoceros]] face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.

[[File:Wallace's line.jpg|thumb|right|Wallace's hypothetical line divides Indonesian Archipelago into 2 types of fauna, Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. The deepwater of the [[Lombok Strait]] between the islands of [[Bali]] and [[Lombok]] formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side]]

The shallow waters of the [[Southeast Asian coral reefs]] have the highest levels of [[biodiversity]] for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish, and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the [[Raja Ampat]] (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world's "center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity". The [[whale shark]], the world's largest species of fish and 6 species of [[sea turtle]]s can also be found in the [[South China Sea]] and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.

The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo.

While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, [[Deforestation in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation]] which causes habitat loss for various [[endangered species]] such as orangutan and the [[Sumatran tiger]]. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and [[Flora|plant species]] in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|last=Young|first=Emma|title=Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3973-biodiversity-wipeout-facing-south-east-asia/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=New Scientist|language=en-US}}</ref> At the same time, [[haze]] has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997]] and [[2006 Southeast Asian haze|2006]] in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "[[slash and burn]]" activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the [[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]] to combat haze pollution.

The [[2013 Southeast Asian haze|2013 Southeast Asian Haze]] saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced the highest [[Air pollution index|API]] level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.<ref>[[2013 Southeast Asian haze#Air Pollution Index readings]]</ref>