Editing Slavery (section)

=== Africa ===
{{See also|Slavery in Africa}}
Slavery was widespread in Africa, which pursued both internal and external slave trade.<ref>{{cite web |last=Perbi |first=Akosua |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/slavery/perbi.pdf |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in Pre-colonial Africa |publisher=latinamericanstudies.org |date=April 5, 2001 |access-date=August 11, 2016 }}</ref> In the [[Senegambia (geography)|Senegambia]] region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western [[Sahel]], including [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], [[Bamana Empire|Segou]], and [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]], about a third of the population were enslaved.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=December 30, 2007 |access-date=March 19, 2018}}</ref>

In European courtly society, and European aristocracy, black African slaves and their children became visible in the late 1300s and 1400s. Starting with [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], black Africans were included in the [[retinue]]. In 1402 an [[Ethiopian]] embassy reached [[Venice]]. In the 1470s black Africans were painted as court attendants in wall paintings that were displayed in [[Mantua]] and [[Ferrara]]. In the 1490s black Africans were included on the emblem of the [[Duke of Milan]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Image of the Black in Western Art |volume=2 |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Bindman |editor2-first=Henry Louis |editor2-last=Gates (Jr.) |editor3-first=Karen C. C. |editor3-last=Dalton |publisher=[[Belknap Press]] of [[Harvard University Press]] |year=2010 |issue=2 |isbn=978-0-674-05271-0 |page=27}}</ref>

[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|13th-century slave market in [[Yemen]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Slaves in Saudi |volume=5 |issue=61 |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/07/27/d40727150297.htm |access-date=February 7, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |first=Naeem |last=Mohaiemen |date=July 27, 2004}}</ref>]]
During the [[trans-Saharan slave trade]], slaves from [[West Africa]] were transported across the [[Sahara|Sahara desert]] to [[North Africa]] to be sold to [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Middle East|Middle eastern]] civilizations. During the [[Red Sea slave trade]], slaves were transported from Africa across the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula. The [[Indian Ocean slave trade]], sometimes known as the east African slave trade, was multi-directional. Africans were sent as slaves to the [[Arabian Peninsula]], to [[Indian Ocean]] islands (including [[Madagascar]]), to the [[Indian subcontinent]], and later to the Americas. These traders captured [[Bantu peoples]] ([[Zanj]]) from the interior in present-day [[Kenya]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Tanzania]] and brought them to the coast.<ref name="Och">{{cite book |last1=Ochiengʼ |first1=William Robert |title=Eastern Kenya and Its Invaders |date=1975 |publisher=East African Literature Bureau |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziJyAAAAMAAJ |access-date= May 15, 2015 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Ogot">{{Cite journal |first=Bethwell A. |last=Ogot |author-link=Bethwell A. Ogot |date=April 1970 |title=Zamani: a survey of East African history |journal=[[African Affairs]] |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096007 |issn=1468-2621 |page=104}}</ref> There, the slaves gradually assimilated in rural areas, particularly on [[Unguja]] and [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] islands.<ref name="Lodhi"/>

Some historians assert that as many as 17&nbsp;million people were sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa, and approximately 5&nbsp;million African slaves were bought by Muslim slave traders and taken from Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert between 1500 and 1900.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm |title=Focus on the slave trade |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=September 3, 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525101036/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm |archive-date=May 25, 2017}}</ref> The captives were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on [[plantation]]s in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.<ref name="Lodhi">{{cite book |last=Lodhi |first=Abdulaziz |title=Oriental influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts |year=2000 |publisher=Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis |isbn=978-91-7346-377-5 |page=17 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ePhxAAAAMAAJ |page=17}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Africa |first1=John Donnelly |last1=Fage |first2=William |last2=Tordoff |date=2001 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-25248-5 |edition=4 |location=Budapest |page=258 |author1-link=John Donnelly Fage}}<!--|access-date=14 May 2015 --></ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Edward R. |last1=Tannenbaum |first2=Guilford |last2=Dudley |title=A History of World Civilizations |year=1973 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-84480-8 |page=615 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ|page=615}}}}</ref> The Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labour, Bantu slaves bought by east African slave traders from southeastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, European colonies in the Far East, the [[List of islands in the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean islands]], Ethiopia and Somalia.{{sfn|Campbell|2004|p=ix}}

According to the ''[[Encyclopedia of African History]]'', "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=umyHqvAErOAC}} |title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set |date=July 4, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-45670-2 |page=1401}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.1blue02.html |title=Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review) |journal=[[Journal of World History]] |access-date=December 31, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411071529/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=%2Fjournals%2Fjournal_of_world_history%2Fv007%2F7.1blue02.html}}</ref> The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2&nbsp;million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16&nbsp;million.<ref name="twentieth1">{{cite web |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf |title="Freedom is a good thing but it means a dearth of slaves": Twentieth Century Solutions to the Abolition of Slavery |access-date=August 29, 2010 |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515192003/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/cbss/Miers.pdf}}</ref>

Slave labour in East Africa was drawn from the ''Zanj'', Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.<ref name="Ogot"/><ref name="Bagley">{{Cite book |last=Bagley |first=H. R. C. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=-AznJs58wtkC|page=174}} |title=The Last Great Muslim Empires |date=August 1, 1997 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-02104-4}}</ref> The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean during the [[Indian Ocean slave trade]]. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers during their [[slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate]] in Iraq. The [[Zanj Rebellion]], a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 near [[Basra]] (also known as Basara), against the [[slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]] situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the [[African Great Lakes]] region and areas further south in [[East Africa]].{{sfn|Rodriguez|2007a|p=585}} It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across the [[Muslim empire]] and claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".<ref name="Furlonge">{{cite web |last=Asquith |first=Christina |url=https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-767/revisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities |title=Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict – 868–883 AD – slave revolt in Iraq |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306155327/https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-76402507/revisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities}}</ref>

The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/islam12.htm |title=Islam, From Arab To Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era |publisher=History-world.org |access-date=March 23, 2016 |archive-date=September 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924235641/http://history-world.org/islam12.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> As the [[plantation economy]] boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labour work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labour shortage led to an increased slave market.

[[File:Marche aux esclaves d alger gravure.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Slave market in [[Algiers]], 1684]]
In [[Algiers]], the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. In about 1650, there were as many as 35,000 Christian slaves in Algiers.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Last Great Muslim Empires |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=-AznJs58wtkC|page=100}} |isbn=978-90-04-02104-4 |last1=Kissling |first1=H. J. |last2=Spuler |first2=Bertold |last3=Barbour |first3=N. |last4=Trimingham |first4=J. S.|last5=Braun |first5=H. |last6=Hartel |first6=H. |date=August 1, 1997|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> By one estimate, raids by [[Barbary slave trade]]rs on coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 to 1.25&nbsp;million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Syed |first1=Muzaffar Husain |date=2011 |title=A Concise History of Islam |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=eACqCQAAQBAJ|page=453}} |location=New Delhi |publisher= VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd |page=453 |isbn=978-93-81411-09-4 |quote=According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNdPQAAACAAJ |title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 |date=September 16, 2003 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK |isbn=978-1-4039-4551-8 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="researchnews.osu.edu">{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |title=When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed |publisher=Research News |access-date=October 10, 2007 |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm}}</ref> However, this estimate is the result of an extrapolation which assumes that the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates was constant for a 250-year period:

{{blockquote|There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000.<ref name=Earle>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books |title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe |last1=Carroll |first1=Rory |date=March 11, 2004 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=December 11, 2017 |issn=0261-3077 }}</ref>}}

Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe.<ref name=Earle/> In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive,{{clarify|date=December 2023}} with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.<ref name=Wright>{{Cite news |last=Wright |first=John |title=Trans-Saharan Slave Trade |year=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref> Such observations, across the late 16th and early 17th century observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.<ref name=BritishSlaves>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |last=Davis |first=Robert |date=February 17, 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]] }}</ref> This eventually led to the [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombardment of Algiers]] by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives |journal=The SHAFR Guide Online |last=Baepler |first=B. |date=January 1999 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |doi=10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim030170256 |page=5}}</ref><ref name=BritishSlaves />

[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Swahili coast|Arab-Swahili]] slave traders and their captives on the [[Ruvuma River]] in East Africa, 19th century]]
Under Omani Arabs, Zanzibar became East Africa's [[Zanzibar slave trade|main slave port]], with as many as 50,000 African slaves passing through every year during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |title=Swahili Coast |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |date=October 17, 2002 |access-date=September 30, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230022459/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 30, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=March 30, 2007 |title=Remembering East African slave raids |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6510675.stm |access-date=February 6, 2021 |publisher=[[BBC News]] }}</ref> Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18&nbsp;million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.<ref name="Slavery"/>{{failed verification|date=August 2020}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 3, 2001 |title=Focus on the slave trade |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm |access-date=February 6, 2021 |publisher=[[BBC News]] }}</ref> [[Eduard Rüppell]] described the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5,000 made it to Egypt."{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=173}} W.A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor, [[Gustav Nachtigal]], an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way&nbsp;... [[John Scott Keltie|Keltie]] (''The Partition of Africa'', London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. [[David Livingstone|Livingstone]] puts the figure as high as ten to one."<ref>{{cite book |first1=Willem A. |last1=Veenhoven |title=Case Studies on Human Rights And Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=0lSH6-0HRaYC|page=440}} |access-date=May 31, 2012 |year=1977 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-247-1956-3 |page=440}}</ref>

Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the [[Ancient history|ancient world]]. In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the slaves were not treated as [[#Chattel slavery|chattel slaves]] and were given certain rights in a system similar to [[indentured servitude]] elsewhere in the world. The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to [[kinship]] structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections.<ref name="Snell" /> This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties.<ref name="Lovejoy">{{Cite journal |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |journal=[[Journal of African History]] |title=The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature |year=1989 |page=30}}</ref> Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master.<ref name="Snell">{{cite book |last=Snell |first=Daniel C. |title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery |year=2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=New York |pages=4–21 |editor=Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge |chapter=Slavery in the Ancient Near East}}</ref> Slavery was practiced in many different forms: debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, and criminal slavery were all practiced in various parts of Africa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty: An American History |year=2012 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York |page=18}}</ref> Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa.

[[File:Kenneth Lu - Slave ship model ( (4811223749).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|A model showing a cross-section of a typical 1700s European slave ship on the [[Middle Passage]], [[National Museum of American History]].]]
When the [[Atlantic slave trade]] began, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M'bokolo wrote in {{lang|fr|[[Le Monde diplomatique]]}}:

{{blockquote|The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the [[Muslim world|Muslim countries]] (from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via the [[Red Sea]], another four million through the [[Swahili people|Swahili]] ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the [[Trans-Saharan trade|trans-Saharan]] caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=M'bokolo |first=Elikia |date=April 1, 1998 |title=The impact of the slave trade on Africa |url=https://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa |access-date=February 7, 2021 |work=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] }}</ref>}}

The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa.

These expeditions were typically carried out by [[List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa|African kingdoms]], such as the [[Oyo Empire]] ([[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]), the [[Ashanti Empire]],<ref name="apology"/> the kingdom of [[Dahomey]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm |access-date=February 6, 2021 |website=metmuseum.org |title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade] |first=Alexander Ives |last=Bortolot |date=October 2003 }}</ref> and the [[Aro Confederacy]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/404.htm |access-date=February 6, 2021 |website=countrystudies.us |title=Nigeria – The Slave Trade |publisher=[[U.S. Library of Congress]] |archive-date=February 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207031844/http://countrystudies.us/404.htm}}</ref> It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the [[Middle Passage|voyage]], with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubinstein |first=W. D. |title= Genocide: a history |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=nMMAk4VwLLwC|page=76}} |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2004 |pages=76–78 |isbn=978-0-582-50601-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mancke |first1=Elizabeth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=gsYlogeOEgYC|page=30}} |title=The Creation of the British Atlantic World |last2=Shammas |first2=Carole |pages=30–31 |date=May 31, 2005 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-8039-1}}</ref>